Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period

Vedic Culture:
Vedic literature, Linguistics and Archaeology:
Most of the information about their culture is derived from the Vedic literature. This literature is fundamentally in the form of the faith systems of the Vedic tribes and eulogies of their deities. There are various opinions about the chronology of the Vedic culture. However, there is a general agreement that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on the basis of astronomical events.

This debate began in the 16th century. Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not known. In the 16th century, the European academics became aware of the similarities between Sanskrit and Latin- Greek languages. It resulted into the notion of the ‘Indo-European’ language family.

Vedic Literature and Social organisation of Vedic Times:
The Vedic literature is supposed to be the earliest literature of India. They were written in Sanskrit. The four Vedas form the core of the Vedic literature.

Rigveda: The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns) composed to eulogise the deities. The verses in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta (hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala.

Yajurveda: The Yajurveda offers explanation of the sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a combined composition of the Rigvedic richa in verse and the explanation of its use v as a mantra in prose.

Samaveda: The Samaveda is a text that gives the rules of reciting mantras in a musical form. The Samaveda is regarded as the text that is fundamental in the development of Indian music.

Atharvaveda: The Atharvaveda is about the day-to-day life. It contains information about charms and medicines for various problems and diseases. It also talks about the norms of statesmanship.

Varna System:
The Vedic society was organized into four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely, Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The varna system is first mentioned in the tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In the later Vedic period, the varna system lost its flexibility. Also, the caste system got rooted firmly by this period.

In the beginning, the varna or the caste was decided by one’s occupation. Later it came to be determined on the basis of birth. Hence it became impossible to change one’s varna and caste, in which he/she was born.

Ashrama System:
The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture lays down the norms of living an ideal life by dividing the span of human life into four successive stages, namely Brahmacharyashram, Grihasthashram, Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram.

• In the first stage one was expected to spend an austere life and earn knowledge and necessary occupational skills.
• In the second stage one was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties with one’s wife by his side.
• In the third stage one was expected to retire from the active life of the householder and if the need be, to give advice to the younger people. It was also desirable that one should stay away from human settlement.
• In the fourth and the last stage one was expected to renounce all the family bonds, accept a wandering life and to go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to settle at one place for a longer time.

The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded through Vedic Literature:
The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu region have been mentioned in the Rigveda. Among them occur the names like Puru, Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc. They were the tribes who subsisted on agriculture.

The Rigveda mentions a battle known as ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region, who did not belong to the Rigvedic people. They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’. Panis were looked upon as enemies by the Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle of the Vedic people.

Later Vedic Period:
Later Vedic Period is dated to around 1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this period is gathered from the treatises written in that period. The material culture as reflected in the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata was studied with the help of archaeological evidence.

A picture of the migration in the Later Vedic period can be gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward the east and its geographic markers from the literature of that period. The Later Vedic period saw a gradual formation of confederacies of the Vedic villages. They were known as ‘Janapada’. Generally, the seniors and the elites in a Janapada collectively took social decisions.

Glossary:

→ Philology – A discipline that traces the etymological history and meanings of words.

→ Etymology – The study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history.

→ Dasyu – It is derived from the Sanskrit word “Dasa”. Usually means enemy or servant.

→ Suktas – Hymns.

→ Eulogise – Praise highly in speech or writing.

→ Oligarchy – A small group of people having control of a country or organization.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become aware of and understand the world around us. It includes processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size, movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence, motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement, etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.

Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation. In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning meaning to information received about the environment based on the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:
Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize top-down processing, our ability to understand information is influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:
Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together. Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path. Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involves the manipulation of information.

The core elements of thinking are –

• Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
• Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes, acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to form more complex concepts.
• Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them.
• Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

• Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the problem correctly.
• Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for possible solutions to the problem.
• Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers to be the most effective solution.
• Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution – The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results, he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The period helps to work out the problem without consciously thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

• It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
• Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in muscular movements.
• Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:
Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F. Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:
Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:
Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision making, etc.

Glossary:

→  Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→  Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past experiences and memory and helps in perception and interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental representation and manipulation of information.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality

Meaning Of Personality:
The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which was used to refer to masks worn by actors during a stage performance, Thus, the meaning of personality was interpreted as ‘projected behaviour’ of an individual.

According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustments to the environment.”

Factors Affecting Personality:
Personality is shaped by biological factors like heredity and endocrine glands and by psychosocial factors like family, peer groups, school and culture.

Heredity – It implies the genetic inheritance of an individual. Heredity affects the physical characteristics, such as height, physique, etc. It also influences the self-concept which in turn influences personality.

Endocrine glands – Personality is shaped by endocrine glands like pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads, etc. Over secretion or under secretion of hormones produced by these glands can adversely affect our personality.

Family – As the first agency of socialization, the family exerts a strong influence on personality. Aspects of family such as family structure, atmosphere, and relationships, family interactions and ‘ childrearing practices influence personality, for e.g., if parents show rejection or overprotection, etc., towards the child, it may leads to low self-esteem and adverse effects on the personality.

Peer group – It refers to individuals of the same age group, e.g., classmates or sharing the same interests, e.g., members of a sports club. Influence of the peer group is most noticed in adolescence since it serves as a reference group.

The influence of peer group on the person may be positive such as developing healthy gender attitudes, skills of communication, etc., or it may be negative e.g., developing aggressive tendencies, prejudices, etc.

School – Various aspects of school such as teaching-learning process, academic and co-curricular facilities, role of the teachers, school location, management and discipline, etc., influence the child’s personality, for e.g., teachers who are well qualified, creative, build a rapport with the students, tend to motivate students and help to develop a good personality.

Mass media – It includes print media such as newspapers, audio-visual media such as T.V., and new media such as Internet, etc. Media is a source of information, education, entertainment and even socialization. It has a considerable effect on our value system, behaviour patterns and personality. However, excessive dependence on media may lead to egocentrism, poor academic performance, sleep disturbance, etc.

Cultural factors – Culture refers to the customs, values and social behaviour of a particular society. Every culture has its own set of beliefs, norms, expectations, etc., which influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of its members.

Perspectives Of Studying Personality:

Perspective	Assumption	Main Psychologists
(1) Psychoanalytic	Early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind play a role in personality development.	Sigmund Freud
(2) Humanistic	Free will and psychological growth are important in personality development.	Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
(3) Trait	Every individual possesses an unique set of traits that determine personality.	Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell
(4) Type	Every individual has an unique personality type based on his/her physique, temperament and mental characteristics.	William Sheldon
(5) Social	Cognitive Observational learning and cognitive processes play a role in personality development.	Albert Bandura

Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality:
Carl Jung classified individuals into introverts and extroverts, based on the characteristics exhibited by them.

Characteristics of introverts are :

• they tend to look within themselves for stimulation
• they are shy, reserved, avoid social interactions
• they choose careers and hobbies that do not involve much social contact
• they may be sensitive to criticism.

Characteristics of extroverts are:

• they depend on external stimulation and evaluate themselves based on impressions of others
• they tend to be outgoing, cheerful, optimistic
• they choose careers and hobbies that bring them in contact with others
• they tend to be enthusiastic, and full of energy.

NOTE: In real life, most individuals tend to exhibit a blend of traits of introverts and extroverts, i.e., ambiverts.

Allport’s Theory of Personality:
A trait is a relatively enduring and consistent way of thinking, feeling and acting. It is some distinctive characteristic of the person that leads him/her to behave in more or less consistent ways across situations and over a period of time.
Allport categorised traits as :

Cardinal Traits – It is a single trait that dominates the individual’s personality. Every action of the person can be traced to the influence of this trait, for e.g., in case of Gandhiji honesty was the cardinal trait, in case of Napoleon it was ambition.

Central Traits – These traits are ‘core’ or ‘basic’ characteristics that form the building blocks of personality. There are about 5-10 traits such as sensitivity, sociability, diligence, etc., that can best describe an individual’s personality.

Secondary Traits – These traits play a minor role in personality as they appear only in specific situations or under specific circumstances. They are sometimes related to preferences or attitudes.

Five-factor Model of Personality (OCEAN):
The Big Five Theory, based on the trait perspective was proposed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
The five broad trait factors are –

Openness to Experience – People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, imaginative, appreciative of art, sensitive to beauty. They sometimes tend to think and act in nonconforming, adventurous ways.

Conscientiousness – It concerns the way in which people control, regulate and direct their impulses. People high in conscientiousness are hardworking, disciplined, responsible, dependable, etc., while those low on conscientiousness tend to be careless, unorganised, spontaneous, undisciplined, etc.

Extroversion – People high on this trait are assertive, talkative, sociable, enthusiastic, etc., while those low on extroversion tend to be shy, reserved, avoid social interactions, etc.

Agreeableness – It refers to the ability of a person to get along with others and show a concern for social harmony. People high on this trait tend to be friendly, cooperative, generous and believe that people are basically decent and trustworthy.

Neuroticism – It refers to a tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression more intensely and for longer periods than most people. Those who score high on neuroticism tend to be irritable, fearful, emotionally unstable and interpret ordinary situations as threatening and hopeless.

Measurement Of Personality:
Personality can be assessed using techniques such as Self Report Measures (Inventories), Behavioural Analysis Techniques and Projective Techniques.

Behavioural Analysis Techniques:
Behavioural analysis (techniques) such as Interview and Observation can provide information about an individual’s personality in a variety of situations.

Interview – It is a process in which the interviewer collects information about the personality of an interviewee by asking him/her specific questions. The main types of interview depending on the purpose of assessment are Structured interview and unstructured interview

Structured interview – The number, type and sequence of questions to be asked in the interview are pre-determined. The answers expected are also specific. This type of interview is used where exact quantification is required, for e.g., industrial psychologists use structured interviews to select employees for a job.

Unstructured interview – The type and sequence of questions to be asked by the interviewer are not pre-determined. Detailed answers can be given and scoring is often subjective. It is employed by clinical psychologists, counsellors, etc.

Observation – The types of observation include Naturalistic observation, Laboratory observation, Participant observation, Non-participant observation, etc. This method is useful only when there is a trained observer, clear objectives and adequate guidelines to carry out the observations.

Self-Report Measures (Inventories):
The individual provides information about his/her personality by responding to statements questions on the inventory, for e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PFQ), etc. Responses are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms that are developed for the test.

Projective Techniques:
Projective techniques emerged from the psychoanalytic perspective. The individual responds freely to relatively unstructured or ambiguous stimuli/material. It is assumed that individuals project their own personality onto these stimuli, often revealing personal conflicts, coping styles, etc. Projective techniques cannot be scored in an objective manner.

They use various materials like ink-blots, ambiguous pictures, incomplete sentences, word associations, etc. Main projective techniques include Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Tests, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Sentence Completion Test, etc.

Glossary:

→  Cardinal traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to a trait that is so powerful and pervasive that almost every act of the individual is influenced by and can be traced back to it.

→ Central traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to relatively general characteristics of an individual that apply to most circumstances.

→ Extrovert – An individual who is social, outgoing and openly expressive prefers social interactions.

→ Introvert – An individual who is reserved, quiet and prefers working independently.

→ Neuroticism – One of the personality factors in the Big Five Factor Model characterised by the tendency to experience negative emotions such as nervousness, tension and worry.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in research.

→ Trait approach – According to this perspective every individual possess specific characteristics and patterns of behaviour that shape personality.

→ Type approach – According to this perspective individuals are classified into groups based on certain characteristics which shape personality.

→ Rating Scale – An instrument in which a respondent gives a numeric value (i.e.rates) to an object or stimulus.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research study that consists of a series of questions that is used to collect information from the participants.
→ Projective methods – They are techniques which use vague or ambiguous stimuli which allow the individual to reveal their personality through their unique responses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology

Introduction:

• Human behaviour is full of diversity.
• Psychology studies different forms of emotions, behaviour and moods of human beings.

History of Psychology:

• Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural aspects of mankind.
• The word Psychology is derived from Greek words Psyche and Logos.
• Plato believed that knowledge is innate.
• John Locke thought that each child is born as an ‘empty slate’.
• Wilhelm Wundt introduced the term ‘conscious experience’ and established first Psychological laboratory.
• Dr. Sigmund Freud defined Psychology as the study of the unconscious.
• Latest definition of Psychology is ‘The study of human behaviour and mental processes.

Study of behaviour:

• John B. Watson redefined Psychology as a Science of human behaviour.
• John B. Watson developed the S-O-R Model.

Study of Cognition:

1. During 1950-1960s, focus of Psychology shifted to cognitive processes.
2. Cognitive Psychology is the study of processes like perception, thinking, memory and other higher-order activities.

Psychology in India:
During 1916 to 1989 there was Professional development of Psychology in India.

Psychology: Indian Perspective:

• Upanishads: Explain the self and personality structure with the help of kosha.
• Five Koshas: Annamaya kosha, Pranmaya kosha, Manomaya kosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha and Anandmaya kosha.
• Ayurveda has given 3 types of Doshas and Gunas.
• Three Doshas known as Kapha, Vata and Pitta determine Prakruti (characteristics) of human beings.
• Three types of Gunas: Sattva Guna, Rajas Guna, Tamas Guna explain human temperament.
• Sage Patanjali explained a deep thought about Psychology in ‘Yogsutra’ and developed the
  theory of ‘Ashtangyoga’.
• Eight aspects of Ashtangyoga are Yama, Niyama, Aasana, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi.

Goals of Psychology:
The four main goals of Psychology are:

1. Describe: What is happening?
2. Explanation: Why it is happening?
3. Prediction: What will happen next?
4. Control: How can it be changed?