Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions

→ Social institutions refer to a system of well-defined, stable patterns of behaviour. It depends upon the collective activities of people. Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.

→ The Functionalist perspective looks at social institutions as playing a number of specific roles in
facilitating human social life.

→ The Marxist or Conflict perspective holds that all individuals are not placed equally in society.

→ The society comprises various social institutions like family, marriage, education, religion, economy, etc.

→ Family is the most important primary unit of human society. A family is a group of people related by blood.

Functions of Family :

• Socialization
• Regulation of sexual activity
• Emotional security
• Economic stability
• Social Identity

Forms of Family:

Structure
Authority

1. Structure:

• joint family
• Nuclear vamily

2. Authority

• Matriarcha1 family
• Patriarchal family

Twenty first century families:
Family as an institution is significantly changing and many new forms are in the making.

• Single parent fami’y
• Cohabitation
• Step-parenting

Marriage:

• Marriage is a social institution through which family relations are formed. It refers, to a pattern sanctioned by society to enter into sex relations and to procreate.
• Today the concept of marriage is enlarged to include homosexual relations.
• In 1989, Denmark became the first country to formally recognize homosexual marriages.

Forms of Marriage –
Forms of Marriage is Bases on:

1. Number of Partners
2. Rules Governing
3. Social Status

1. Number of Partners:

• Monogamy
• polygamy
  • polyandry
  • Polygyny

2. Rules Governing:

• Endogamy
• Exogamy

3. Social Status

• Hypergamy
• Hypogamy

Family, Kinship and Marriage:

• A family is a group of persons directly linked by kin relations.
• Kinship ties are connections between individuals, established either through marriage or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives.

Economy and Work :

• Economy is a basis social institution which organises production distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Every society has to fulfil material needs in order to maintain itself.
• Human society has evolved through various stages, depending upon the way it evolved mechanisms to adapt to changing material needs.

Three Broad Stages of Transformation of Economy:

1. Agricultural Revolution
2. Industrial Revolution
3. Information Revolution

Changing Nature of Work :

• With advanced industrialization, the proportion of population engaged in agriculture is declining.
• There is also an expansion of service sector in India. One of the main features of modern societies is an enormous expansion of economic interdependence.
• Growing competition between firms and countries make it essential to keep production flexible.

Education :
Modern societies have evolved a distinct institution of education to fulfill basic goals like disseminate ideas and knowledge and to develop skills to use existing knowledge for the betterment of society.

Types of Education:

1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
3. Non-formal Education

Importance of Education:

• Children learn self-discipline
• Instill values of individual achievement
• Gain an understanding of common values and moral beliefs
• Teaches specialised skills needed for a complex modern society

Education and Social Division :
Scholars like Bowles and Gintis argue that workplace inequalities are mirrored in the organization of schools and that the education system reproduces these inequalities. Many studies have pointed out that education as a system also perpetrates gender differences.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology

→ Sociology studies every social phenomenon Therefore, sociology is a complex social science.

→ The concepts of sociology are difficult to understand as they are abstract in nature.

Basic Concepts in Sociology:

1. Society
2. Social Role
3. Community
4. Social Norms
5. Social Group
6. Social Status

→ According to Aristotle, ‘man is a social animal’ and cannot live without society.

→ Man is subjected to some elemental and derived needs that can be satisfied within the societal framework.

→ The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companionship or friendship.

→ ‘Society’ is a broad concept and is used frequently or in day-to-day life.

→ Society denotes an ‘ association’, ‘organization’ or ‘group’.

Characteristics of Society:

• Likeness
• Difference
• Interdependence
• Co-operation
• Normative Nature
• Dynamic

→ Maclver and Page stated that the community possesses a distinctively territorial character. It implies a common soil as well as shared way of life.

→ Community is referred to a group of people living in a definite territory to fulfil their common objectives and needs.

Community includes

• Sense of ‘we-feeling
• Common interdependent life
• Common interests
• Common area

Elements of Community:

1. Locality
2. Community Sentiment

→ The term social group is used to refer to the entire human group as well as it means a small group which consists of two individuals.

→ Human beings are social animals and hence have always lived in social groups.

Social group indicates:

1. Common characteristics
2. Number of people with same goals and expectations
3. Regular social interaction

Characteristics of Social Group:

1. Consists of two or more persons
2. Social interaction is essential
3. Mutual awareness
4. ‘We feeling’ among group
5. Purpose to fulfil certain common interest
6. Has its own norms and rules
7. Dynamic in nature

→ Through various classifications of groups given by sociologists one can understand the diverse nature of social groups.

Types of Social Group:

1. In Group and Out Group
2. Voluntary and Involuntary Group
3. Small and Large Group
4. Primary and Secondary Group

Characteristics of Primary Group:

• Physical Proximity
• Small group
• Relationship is an end in itself
• Permanent relationship
• Informal control
• Face-to- face relationship
• Similar objectives and goals

Characteristics of Secondary Group:

• Large size
• Indirect relations
• Impersonal relations
• Deliberate establishment
• Formal relations

→ The concept of Reference Group is given by Robert Merton.

→ People refer to reference group when evaluating:

• Qualities
• Circumstances
• attitude
• values
• behaviours

Reference Group:

• Informal Group: Family, peer group, etc.
• Formal Group: Labour Unions, Supreme court, etc.

→ Social status, social role and social norms are correlated concepts of every society.

→ Every individual has a certain status and performs their role according to the status (position) in society.

→ There are certain rules and regulations to control societal behaviour, which are known as social norms.

Social Status- One’s position or status according to prestige and power.

Types of Status:

1. Ascribed Status: Age, sex, kinship, race, etc.
2. Achieved Status: Politics, sports, skill, education, etc.

Social Role: One’s behavioural aspects of duties associated with status or position.

Role:

• Role performance
• Role exit
• Role conflict
• Role strain
• Role set

Status and role are complementary to each other. They are two sides of the same coin.

Social Norms – Norms make orders and severs individual as a guide for conduct.

Types of Norms:

1. Folkways
2. Mores
3. Law
   • Customary Law
   • Enacted Law

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Constitutional Government students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Constitutional Government

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study the meaning of the Constitution and Constitutionalism. We will also study about Federation and compare the Parliamentary and Parliamentary system

Constitution:
Meaning: The constitution is the highest law of the country. It reflects the objectives of the State and the rights and aspirations of its citizens. It establishes the rule of law and sets limits on government authority. A constitution is a living document that indicates the way in which a country is governed. The primary function of the constitution is to lay out the basic structure of the government according to which the people are to be governed.

Components: A constitution has three distinct but interrelated components.

• Set of Rules – A Constitution is a set of rules that describes the structure, powers and functions of the three organs of government to ensure that each organ functions within its jurisdiction. It lays down the limitations on what the government can do or cannot do.
• Set of Rights- A constitution lists the rights and duties of citizens. It also lists the means of protecting the rights e.g., in India, the judiciary is entrusted with protecting fundamental rights. The rights guaranteed by the constitution are not unlimited i.e. they are subject to reasonable limitations or restrictions.
•  Set of Objectives and Values – A constitution enumerates the values and objectives that it seeks to fulfil for e.g., the Indian Constitution seeks to ensure the values of justice, liberty and equality.

Constitutionalism:
Constitutionalism refers to the idea that there should be limitations on the powers of the government which may be specified in the Constitution or may arise due to historical developments. The Magna Carta (Great Charter) (1215) and Bill of Rights (1689) in England were attempts to restrict the powers of the Monarchs.

As the concept of separation of legislative, executive, judicial powers became popular, so also, the idea of restricting powers of the government as a whole emerged. The origins of constitutionalism can be traced to the Social Contract Theory propounded by John Locke. He believed that people should have the right to change the government if it committed any wrongdoings.

The first ten amendments to the American Constitution (collectively called the Bill of Rights) imposed restrictions on the government. The Indian constitution also restricts government jurisdiction so that it doesn’t violate Fundamental Rights.

Any constitution is subject to amendments. Thus, it is possible that certain governments may use their amendment powers to remove restrictions on policies and actions.

In any democracy, constitutionalism refers to restrictions on the power of the government, adherence to the spirit of the constitution as well as ‘Constitutional Morality.

Types Of Constitutions:

1. Written Constitution – Most world constitutions are written and have been created by a specially appointed body e.g., Indian Constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly. There is a single, written document that contains all necessary provisions.
2. Unwritten Constitution – In this case, some provisions are written while other provisions are governed by constitutional convention or precedents. There is no single written document. United Kingdom is the best example of an unwritten constitution.

Types Of Democratic Governments:
The two main types of democratic governments are Parliamentary System (as seen in the United Kingdom, India, Canada, Australia, Japan, etc.) and Presidential System (which exists in the U.S.A., Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, etc.). This distinction is based mainly on the nature of Legislature-Executive relationship.

Parliamentary System: It makes a distinction between Head of State (President of India) and Head of Government (Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers).

The main features of the parliamentary system are –

• There is a fusion of legislature and executives powers – The executive i.e., the Ministry is drawn from the legislature and is subordinate to it.
• There are two executives i.e., nominal executive (President of India or Monarch in England) and real executive (ministry). All powers are exercised by the real executive in the name of the nominal executive.
• It is a responsible government – The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers stay in power only as long as they have the required majority in the Parliament. In case, the Ministry loses majority support, the Prime Minister has to resign along with the Council of Ministers.
• It may exist either as a Republic or as a Constitutional Monarchy depending on the nature of the powers of the nominal executive. In a Republic, the nominal executive is elected e.g., in India, while in a Monarchy, he/she assumes position on the basis of heredity e.g., in England.
• Most Parliamentary systems have a Bicameral Parliament for e.g., in England, Parliament consists of House of Commons (lower house-directly elected) and House of Lords (upper house-hereditary basis)

Presidential System: The main features of a Presidential system are –

• The President who is directly elected by the citizens for a fixed tenure is both, the Head of State and Head of Government. Thus, there is only one executive.
• The Legislature is also directly elected. Generally, members of the executive are not permitted to belong to the legislature.
• There exists a separation of legislative and executive powers as well as a system of checks and balances for e.g., Legislature can impeach the President, while the President can exercise the ‘Veto Power’ to reject any law passed by the Legislature.
• The President can continue in office irrespective of whether or not he/she enjoys majority support in the Legislature.

Federalism:
A federation refers to a political structure in which there are two sets of governments i.e. one for the whole
country and governments in each of the federal units (called Provinces or States). There is a distribution of powers between the Federal government (also known as Union or Central Government) and the State Governments. Federal governments are preferred in countries having large size and heterogeneous population.

A Federation may be performed by two processes –

1. Small political units ‘come together to establish a single, large political unit for e.g., thirteen colonies came together to fight for independence from British rule and the U.S. federation came into being. This is called centripetal process.
2. States are created by the Union government for e.g., in India, States were reorganized on the basis of language and other regional aspirations. This is the centrifugal process.

The main features of a federation are –

• Dual set of government i.e., Union and State governments.
• Division of power between the two sets of governments for e.g., in India, jurisdiction is distributed
  between the Union (Centre) and States on the basis of the Union, State and Concurrent lists (as stated in Seventh Schedule of the Constitution)
• A written constitution to enable a clear distribution of government powers.
• Independent judiciary – to resolve Centre-State or State-State disputes.

The Indian Federation differs greatly from the U.S. federation. India has been described as ‘quasi federation’ or a ‘federation with an unitary spirit’ as the division of powers favours the Central government for e.g., it has full control over the Union list and Residuary subjects and it’s laws have precedence over state laws even in case of the Concurrent list.

Unitary system: countries that are small in size prefer to have a single, central, government. This is called an Unitary System. This is seen in Cuba, France, Bolivia, Israel, Portugal, Sri Lanka, etc. Some hitherto unitary system change to a quasi-unitary form through establishment of provinces and distribution of political power to somewhat autonomous units for e.g., UK has an unitary system. However, its regions i.e., Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland have their own assemblies with some degree of autonomy. These are known as ‘Holding Together’ federations.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Contribution of Western and Indian Sociologists students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Contribution of Western and Indian Sociologists

→ France is said to be the birthplace of sociology as the foundations of sociology were laid by Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim.

→ Sociology was later continued in other countries in Europe and the western world.

Introduction to Western Sociologists:

1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857).
2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)

(1) Auguste Comte (1798-1857).

• Auguste Comte is popularly known as the ‘Father of Sociology’.
• His full name was ‘Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier Comte.
• He was a mathematician and philosopher, yet expressed the need for ‘reconstruction of society’.

Three Stages pf Evolution:

1. Theological Stage
2. Metaphysical Stage
3. Positive/Scientific Stage

(2) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

• Emile Durkheim has written on social facts, social solidarity, collective representation, social values and morality, crime and punishment.
• He has elaborated an analysis of suicide as a social fact and phenomenon in his book. ‘Le Suicide’.
• Durkheim, “suicide refers to every case of death which results directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act, carried out by the victim himself, knowing that it will produce this result”.

Forms of Suicide:

1. Fatalistic Suicide
2. Altruistic Suicide
3. Egoistic Suicide
4. Anomic Suicide

(3) Karl Marx (1818-1883)

• Karl Marx is also known as the architect of communism.
• In his ‘Communist Manifesto’ he said that at every stage in history, there is a war between the classes.
• According to Marx, the economic factor forms the basis of class.

Theory of ‘Class Conflict’ :

• The Importance of Property
• Class Solidarity and Antagonism
• Polarization of Classes
• Revolution
• Surplus Value
• Dictatorship of Proletariat
• Pauperization
• Emergence of the Communist Society
• Alienation

Introduction to Indian Sociologists:

• ‘Sociology’ and ‘Social anthropology’ were brought to India by British scholars living in India.
• Indian scholars trained in Britain and USA played a major role in the development of their two disciplines.
• A separate department was started in the University of Mumbai (then Bombay) in the year 1919.
• Indian sociologist played a major role in the development of sociology in India, with their specific
  contributions.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 1 Introduction to Sociology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 1 Introduction to Sociology

→ Initially, sociology as a discipline emerged in Europe, but sociology emerged as an independent and separate discipline in the mid 19th century. Sociology is the science of social relationships and social behaviour. The French philosopher Auguste Comte is considered to be the ‘Father of Sociology’.

Nature of Sociology:

1. Empirical Science
2. Theoretical and Applied Science
3. Factual Science
4. Holistic Science

The emergence of Sociology: The roots of the emergence of sociology as a scientific discipline can be traced during the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution of European history which embodied tremendous Social, Political, and Economical changes. This period of change in European Society is known as the ‘Enlightenment period.’

Factors that affect the emergence of sociology:

1. Commercial Revolution
2. Industrial Revolution
3. French Revolution
4. scientific revolution
5. Urbanization

→ The subject matter of Sociology is very wide, because all aspects of social interactions are included in Sociology.

Scope of Sociology:

• Bio-Sociology
• Sociology of Art
• Sociology of Market Research
• Visual Sociology
• Diaspora Sociology

Importance of Sociology:

• studies society in a scientific manner
• gives knowledge about social diversities
• develops a scientific approach
• career-oriented
• solution to social problems
• keeps people updated and alert

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India

Shunga Empire:
The Shunga empire was spread from Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in the west, as well as Himalayas in the North to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra was the main capital, Pushyamitra established a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He strengthened his rule in the provinces of Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc.

Later he conquered the lost provinces of Magadhan empire up to Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory over Demetrius is mentioned in ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by Kalidasa.

Rise of Satavahana Empire:
After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty established itself in the north whereas in the south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power. The Mauryan empire created a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.

Initially, the Satavahana rule came to a rise in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later spread in the vast region of Maharashtra, Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in Maharashtra, was the capital of the Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the ‘Andhras’ or Andhrabhrutyas’. According to some scholars, these terms refer to Satavahanas.

Administrative system, literature, art and social life:
Administrative System: The state under the Satavahanas was divided into small provinces and on every province civil and military officials were appointed to administer individual provinces over it. These included civil officials, such as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest unit of administration.

Grama was a source of revenue and also for the recruitment of soldiers during war-like situations. Thus, Grama was an integral part of the central machinery.

Agriculture was the main source of means of subsistence. Along with it many industries and trade flourished under the Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also emerged during this period. The trade and industries were controlled with the help of these shrenis. The shrenis also provided loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished during the Satavahana period. Trade centres like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed during the Satavahana rule.

Literature: During the Satavahana period, learning and art received royal patronage. Prakrit language and literature flourished during Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty, compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’. Gunadhya, a minister in his court, wrote an incomparable text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a Prakrit language called Paishachi. Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on Sanskrit Grammer, named ‘Katantra’.

Art and Architecture: The influence of Persian and Greek sculptural styles during the Mauryan period seems to have decreased during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A new native Indian style emerged in this period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the Sanchi Stupa No. 1 built during this period are excellent examples of this style.

Society: The society of Satavahana period was organised into four varnas. Similarly, during this period, system also became deeply rooted. The intermixture of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed nature of different guilds, need of including foreigners in the social structure were some of the reasons behind it. Apart from that, there were four classes in the society.

The first class consisted of officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’ and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas). ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan province and Maharathi on the plateau area.

The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’ (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan merchant). The third social class consisted of ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade guilds), ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’ (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators), ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders of perfumes).

Glossary:

→ Repelled – To send something back or to push somebody back.

→ Disintegration – The process of losing strength.

→ Hoard – A large quantity.

→ Inscriptions – Words that are written or cut on something.

→ Contemporary – Of the present time.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting

→ Types of Rocks:

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic

• Igneous : These rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of molten magma.
• Sedimentary : These rocks are formed due to the deposition of layers of organic and inorganic matter including dead remains of plants and animals and sand, silt, clay, gravel, etc.
  Hardening and compaction.
• Metamorphic : These rocks are formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to immense heat and pressure.

→ Weathering:
Weathering is a process of breaking down of rocks due to physical or chemical changes in the rocks.

→ Types of Weathering:

1. Physical / Mechanical:

• Freeze and thaw
• Granular weathering
• Shattering
• Block disintegration
• Exfoliation

2. Chemical:

• Oxidation
• Carbonation
• Crystallization

3. Biological:

• Floral weathering
• Faunal weathering
• Anthropogenic weathering

→ Factors such as water, heat and pressure can cause both physical and chemical weathering.

→ Freeze and thaw weathering: It are particularly effective in high and mid latitudes and in mountainous areas. Where the diurnal range of temperature is high, water inside the crack’s freezes during night time and melts during day time. When water freezes its volume increases and it exerts pressure on walls of rocks and the cracks widen and eventually the rock breaks.

→ Granular disintegration due to temperature change: The coarse-grained rocks are affected in desert areas. These granules are of different colours and they absorb insolation differently. Differential expansion and contraction cause stress on rocks and eventually it disintegrates into smaller particles.

→ Shattering due to rain shower and heat: The outer shells of the rocks are shattered due to sudden light showers in hot climatic region mainly hot deserts.

→ Block disintegration due to heat: In rocks such as granite which have joints, heat can cause weathering by breaking the rocks along the joints into blocks.

→ Exfoliation: The exposed part of the rock heats more, while the inner part is comparatively cooler. As a result, the outer layers of the rocks fall apart from the main rock.

→ Oxidation: Oxygen in the air and water reacts with certain elements in the minerals inside the rock. In this process the minerals in the rocks react with oxygen in the air and water.

→ Carbonation: It involves reaction of carbon dioxide with minerals in the soil. The decomposition of dead matter produces C02 which reacts with minerals.

→ Crystallization: The salts of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium etc., present in the rocks have a tendency to expand due to their thermal properties. This leads to crystallization of salts and individual grains split from the main rocks which fall off at the end. It is dominant in coastal areas with alternate dry and wet periods.

→ Biological Weathering : This is caused because of roots of plants, which penetrates into cracks. Microorganism such as algae, moss, lichens and bacteria grow on the rock surface and produce chemicals that can break the rock.

→ Certain burrowing animals like rats, moles etc. are responsible for breaking of rocks.

→ Anthropological Weathering : Man is a biological agent affecting weathering, mining, blasting of hills and ridges for constructions of roads, railways, dams causing disintegration of rocks.

→ Importance of Weathering:

• It prepares the way for formation of soils and various landforms that we see on earth.
• It helps in enrichment and concentration of ores.

→ Mass Movement or Mass Wasting :
It is the down slope movement of loose mixture of soil, land rock particles by the force of gravity

→ Factors Responsible for Mass Movement:

1. Weak Materials and structures
2. Relief and slope
3. Water
4. Gravity

→ Types of Mass Movements:

1. Fall or topple
2. Flows
3. Slide
4. Creep

1. Fall or topple:
Free fall of rocks

2. Flows:
Mixture of water, rock and weathered material

3. Slide:
Soil section or rock suddenly moves down a slope

4. Creep:
Slow mass movement

→ Different Types of Material Flow:

1. Creep
2. Slowest
3. Only top and base

1. Creep-

• Slowest
• Only top and base

2. Rock fall-

• Rapid
• Mainly in rocky areas

3. Earth flow-

• Rapid or slow
• Water accumulates
• Hillsides in humid regions

4. Solifluction-
Downhill creep in periglacial or alpine regions

5. Landslide-

• Moderately steep
• Rocks or debris

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period

Rise of Magadha Empire:
Magadha was an important kingdom among the Mahajanapadas that existed in ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, availability of commercial markets etc., were the reasons for the rise of Magadha as empire. In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka dynasty ruled over Magadha.

Nanda and Mauryan Empire:
Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan empire established by Ajatashatru was further expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread up to Nanded in the South, whereas some scholars think that it was extended up to Mysore.

On this basis it can be said that Mahapadma Nanda was the first great emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his period, the state treasury was enormously rich. His military was also very huge. It consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots.

Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was the first well organised and strongly controlled empire in the history of India. Religious texts and other literature, inscriptions, coins, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us to clearly understand the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of this period.

The Mauryan empire had spread on a large region of the Indian sub-continent and was controlled by a central power. The Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of the political system.

Emperor Ashoka: Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan empire after the death of Bindusara. He got himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and pillar inscriptions. During the early period of his rule, Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom.

He attacked Kalinga and conquered it. There was a great human loss in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The destruction caused due to the Kalinga War brought about a great change in the mind of Ashoka.

Administrative system, trade, literature, art and architecture, social life:
Administrative system: The nature of administrative system during the Mauryan period is clearly understood with the help of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya was a valiant king and an efficient administrator.

He set up a defined mechanism of state administration, which suited the economic conditions and the needs of the Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors created a unified empire. At the same time, they devised a decentralised administrative system for efficient functioning of the vast empire.

Trade: There was an increase in revenue due to well-organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a tax to be given in the scale of the land under cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax on production. Agricultural land and the tax acquired from the agricultural production was the basic foundation of the administrative system.

Industries gained momentum during this period. Cloth production was the most important industry. Apart from that metallurgy, carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and many such professions began.

Literature: Literature reflects the thought process of the people and the political, social, economic and religious conditions. During the Mauryan period, along with the literature in Sanskrit language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi literature in Prakrit language is also seen. For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, literature was created in Prakrit language.

The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. The world famous work of Panini’s Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in Sanskrit literature.

Art and architecture: After the establishment of Mauryan rule, there was happiness, peace, prosperity and good governance. Mauryan art is the beginning of ancient Indian architecture and the sculptural art. It appears that, during the Mauryan period, the artists had acquired the skill of cutting and carving the stone. In both, the skill of a specific expression of art and the technique of mirror polish of the stone is seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’.

During this period stone statues of Yaksha and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues of Yakshi are beautiful and finely carved. The famous Chauri bearer of Didarganj is supposed to be one of such statue. The Yaksha statues in Parkham and the female images at Besnagar and Patna of this period are exhibited in the Mathura museum.

Glossary:

→ Perennial – Lasting or existing for a long or infinite time.
→ Matrimonial – Related to marriage.
→ Expansionist policy – Relating to territorial or economic expansion.
→ Mahaparinibbana – Refers to the ultimate state of Nirvana (everlasting peace).

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice

Introduction:
This chapter deals with concepts of Equality and Justice which are concerned with the social order.
We will focus on the meaning, facets, importance and types of equality. We will also study the meaning and
types of justice. We will also look at the concepts of equality and justice in the Indian context.

Equality:
Meaning: Equality is an important ideal in society. Equality does not mean uniformity. It signifies that • all human beings have an equal worth, irrespective of their ethnicity, religion, caste, etc. Today, equality is looked at as a political goal as well as the basis of Liberty and Justice. It has a moral and collective dimension as it includes empathy and tolerance.

Natural inequalities are a reality since humans are not equal in physical or intellectual aspects. The struggle for equality is to do away with the restrictions and burdens of man-made inequalities that are created on the basis of religion, caste, race, status, wealth, etc. Equality is the attempt to create conditions where every individual is given equal opportunity to develop and progress.

Thus, equality is a rational concept. Laski explains it as “fundamentally, a levelling progress”.
The facets of equality are:

• Absence of special privileges to or of discriminations against anyone in the matter of socio-economic and political rights. No person or group should have special conditions that are denied to a large majority. For e.g., In the caste hierarchy, the lower castes were discriminated against while upper castes flourished as they had special status and privileges.
• Equality before law and equal protection of the law – The law is equally applicable to everyone irrespective of economic or social status, race, creed, etc.
• Equality of opportunity – To enhance one’s potential and to develop one’s personality irrespective of considerations like ethnicity, gender, community, etc. Deprived sections must have provisions for education, employment and social wellbeing to enable fair competition with others.
• Absolute equality is neither possible nor desirable as equality in no way implies uniformity.

History Of Equality:
The idea of equality has been studied since ancient Greek times, in the context of struggles against absolute monarchy and unequal social conditions. In his work ‘The Politics, Aristotle advocated equality before law and explained the correlation between equality and justice.

His idea of equality was with reference to the ruler and the ruled whom he considered naturally unequal on basis of inequality in intellectual abilities. Thomas Hobbes in his book ‘Leviathan’ explained that all persons must be treated as equals in spite of existing physical or intellectual inequalities.

Tocqueville’s idea of equality developed in the process of abolition of the feudal system and establishment of democracy. Rousseau analyzed natural inequalities (due to differences in physical strength, intellectual abilities, etc.) and man-made inequalities (arising due to private property, division of labour and exploitation by the rich). Equality could be brought about by natural law.

Karl Marx propounded the socialist idea of equality i.e. it can be achieved by creating a ‘classless society. He gave importance to emancipation of workers from exploitation and to equitable distribution of the means of production.

Indian Context:
Many sections of Indian society exhibits obstacles to social equality arising due to caste hierarchy and subsequent discrimination as well as due to a patriarchal system. Most social reformers have worked towards creation of a just society. Mahatma Phule focused on elimination of discriminations based on caste and gender.

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade worked in areas of women’s rights and promoting widow remarriage.
Mahatma Gandhi focused on socio-economic and gender equality. Dr. Babasaheh Amhedkar also focused on social, cultural, political and economic equality through elimination of the caste system.

Importance Of Equality:

• Equality is necessary to uphold the dignity of the individual.
• It is necessary to create a just society.
• It is necessary to promote mutual respect among members of a society.
• It helps to bring about fraternity.
• Liberty and equality are the cornerstones of a democracy.

Types Of Equality:
→ Natural Equality considers that all human beings are equal though they differ in abilities. Every person should get equal opportunity to develop his/her potential. Early Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle did not believe in natural equality. However, thinkers like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau explained about natural equality in the ‘State of Nature’.

→ Social Equality refers to absence of unreasonable social barriers or discrimination such as those based on race, religion, caste, gender, status, etc. No person must be viewed as superior or inferior merely on the basis of birth, ethnicity or social position.

→ However, social inequality is prevalent all over the world even today. Legislations, education and economic progress can help to reduce social inequality for e.g., in India Article 17 of the constitution deals with the abolition of untouchability.

→ Civil Equality means that civil rights are equally available to all individuals. There is equality before law and equal protection of the law. However, special laws made for the protection or upliftment of weaker sections of society such as tribals, backward classes, women, etc., do not violate the principle of equality.

→ Political Equality is possible only in a democracy. It refers to the right of citizens to participate in the affairs of the state. It is based on the principle of political participation and Universal Adult Franchise.

→ Economic Equality – When wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few (economic inequality), then political power and social ranking is also monopolized by them, resulting in exploitation of the underprivileged sections of society. Economic equality does not imply equal distribution of wealth or equal income irrespective of the nature of work.

Economic equality implies to the following –

• Reduction in wide disparities of wealth.
• Prevention of concentration of wealth and income in the hands of a few persons.
• Absence of any kind of economic exploitation, denial or subjugation.
• Availability of essential goods and services i.e. minimum needs must be satisfied first.
• Reasonable economic opportunities for individuals to develop themselves and to progress.
• Adequate scope for work and for decent wages.

Justice:
Meaning: Justice implies righteousness, which is used as a basis for judging values and conduct. It is an ancient concept. Greek philosopher, Socrates considered justice as a political virtue. Plato identified justice with truth and morality while Aristotle expressed that justice can be achieved in a society only when there is equality and balance. In ancient India, justice was associated with the concept of ‘Dharma’.

Types of Justice:
The term justice refers to a state of affairs in which every individual has exactly those burdens and benefits which are due to him.

Natural Justice – This concept is linked to the very existence of human beings and was advocated by ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Humans can intrinsically and universally understand concepts of right and wrong. Hence there is no need for man-made law.

Legal Justice – John Austina considered law as a means to eliminate injustice and to establish a just society. Justice is a precondition to law.

Social Justice – The concept of social justice implies equal social opportunities to every individual to progress to the fullest possible extent. Social justice is reformative i.e., it aims at a revision of the social order.

It involves eradication of existing social evils. Social justice is also distributive i.e., available resources should be equitably distributed to ensure social welfare. It is not just related to individuals or groups, but to society at large.

Social justice is dynamic i.e. it modifies according to changing needs and situations.
The two approaches of social justice are

1. Procedural justice advocated by Nozick i.e., everyone should be treated equally before law and proper legal procedures must be followed
2. Social justice propagated by Marx, Rawls and Dr. Ambedkar. According to Karl Marx, the state is an instrument of exploitation of the workers and ‘have-nots’. Transformation of a capitalist system into a socialist system will ensure an equitable distribution of resources. Rawls advocated the concept of distributive justice and the principle of fairness.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements

→ Hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys etc., are the landforms formed due to internal and external processes.

→ The earth’s surfaces changes slowly and continuously due to forces like tension and compression.

→  Earth Movements:

1. Internal (Endogenic) Movements:
Slow Movements: Formation of mountains and continents

2. External (Exogenic) Movements:
Sudden Movements : Earthquakes and volcanoes

Slow Movements :

• The earth’s movements which are the result of internal forces are known as tectonic movements.
• Based on the direction of slow movements they are classified as vertical and horizontal movements.

Slow Movements :

1. Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :
   Continent-building movements
2. Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements
   Mountain-building processes

Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :

• These movements occur due to the forces in the interior of the earth and the travel of energy.
• Slow movements take place either towards the centre of the earth or away from it towards the
  crust.
• Due to these movements, an extensive portion of the crust is either raised up or it subsides.
  This portion of the crust, raised above sea-level leads to formation of continents.
• Slow movements also cause formation of extensive plateaus.

Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements:

• Horizontal movements work in horizontal direction, creating compression or tension in the rock
  strata.
• These movements lead to folds or cracks in the surface of the earth and gives rise to mountains.
  These movements are slow movements causing folds or faults, after which, fold mountains or
  block mountains are formed.
• Horizontal movements are further divided into tensional forces and compressional forces.

Horizontal (Orogenic Movements):

• Tensional Forces: Raptures, cracks, fractures, faults
• Compressional Forces: Folding and faulting

→ Tensional forces move away from each other causing stress in the rock strata thus, creating raptures, cracks, fractures and faults.

→ Rift valley and block mountains are formed as a result of tensional forces.

→ Compressional forces operate towards each other; causing various folding.

→ Folding occurs due to factors like nature of rocks, intensity and duration of force.

→ Folding occurs when compressional forces are applied to rocks that are ductile or flexible.

→ Folding results in formation of fold mountains, e.g., Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes, etc.

→ Parts of Fold:

• Limbs
  Both sides of a fold are called limbs
• Axial
  A plane that divides the fold into two parts
• Axis
  May be vertical, inclined or horizontal
• Anticlines
  Limbs sloping downward with central portion getting raised up
• Synclines
  Limbs sloping towards each other with central portion located at lower elevation

→ Fold mountains are classified depending on their age.

→ Fold Mountains:

1. Old Fold Mountains (Over 200 million years)
Example : Aravalis in India, Urals in Russia,
Appalachians in USA

2. Young Fold Mountains (10 to 25 million years)
Example : Rockies and Himalayas

→ Types of Folds

1. Symmetrical (axial plane is vertical)
2. Asymmetrical (axial plane is inclined)
3. Overturned (one limb lies above other limb)
4. Recumbent (axial plane is almost vertical)
5. Isoclinal (limbs slope in the same direction)

→ Faulting :

• Faulting can be classified according to displacement in rocks. The plane of fracture is called fault.
• Faulting results in the formation of block mountains and rift valleys.

→ Types of Faults:

1. Normal Fault (portion of land slides down along fault plane)
2. Thrust Fault Reverse Fault (portion of land on one side gets detached and moves on the other side)
3. Reverse Fault: (portion of land is thrown upward)
4. Tear Fault (movement occurs along the plane in horizontal direction)

→ Tensional forces tend to pull the crust apart and faults are developed.

→  The tension may cause subsidence in the central portion of the crust between two adjacent faults, forming graben or rift valleys, which have steep walls. For e.g., African Rift Valley, Narmada and Tapi Rift Valleys in India.

→  Sudden movements refer to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Earthquake refers to shaking of the ground due to release of stress and energy.

→  The point where the accumulated stress gets released within the earth’s crust is called seismic focus.

→  A point directly above it, on the surface of the earth is the epicentre.

→  The earthquake waves are recorded by an instrument called seismograph.

→ Causes Of Earthquakes

1. Volcanicity
2. Tectonic movement
3. Anthropogenic causes

→  Classification of Volcanoes:
Eruption:

• Formation of mountains and continents
• Eruption through fissures

Periodicity:

• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct or dead

→ Types of Volcanic Materials:

1. Liquid material
2. Solid materials
3. Gaseous materials

Liquid material:

• Acidic Lava
• Basic Lava

Solid materials:

• Dust Particles
• Rock Fragments

Gaseous materials:
Smoke

→ Three major belts or zones of earthquake and volcanoes:

1. Circum-Pacific Belt
2. Mid – Atlantic Belt
3. Mid-Continental Belt

Circum-Pacific Belt: Ring of Fire
Mid – Atlantic Belt: Mid – Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Continental Belt:

1. Alpine Mountain Chains
2. Mediterranean Sea
3. Fault Zone of Eastern Africa