Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements

→ Hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys etc., are the landforms formed due to internal and external processes.

→ The earth’s surfaces changes slowly and continuously due to forces like tension and compression.

→  Earth Movements:

1. Internal (Endogenic) Movements:
Slow Movements: Formation of mountains and continents

2. External (Exogenic) Movements:
Sudden Movements : Earthquakes and volcanoes

Slow Movements :

• The earth’s movements which are the result of internal forces are known as tectonic movements.
• Based on the direction of slow movements they are classified as vertical and horizontal movements.

Slow Movements :

1. Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :
   Continent-building movements
2. Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements
   Mountain-building processes

Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :

• These movements occur due to the forces in the interior of the earth and the travel of energy.
• Slow movements take place either towards the centre of the earth or away from it towards the
  crust.
• Due to these movements, an extensive portion of the crust is either raised up or it subsides.
  This portion of the crust, raised above sea-level leads to formation of continents.
• Slow movements also cause formation of extensive plateaus.

Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements:

• Horizontal movements work in horizontal direction, creating compression or tension in the rock
  strata.
• These movements lead to folds or cracks in the surface of the earth and gives rise to mountains.
  These movements are slow movements causing folds or faults, after which, fold mountains or
  block mountains are formed.
• Horizontal movements are further divided into tensional forces and compressional forces.

Horizontal (Orogenic Movements):

• Tensional Forces: Raptures, cracks, fractures, faults
• Compressional Forces: Folding and faulting

→ Tensional forces move away from each other causing stress in the rock strata thus, creating raptures, cracks, fractures and faults.

→ Rift valley and block mountains are formed as a result of tensional forces.

→ Compressional forces operate towards each other; causing various folding.

→ Folding occurs due to factors like nature of rocks, intensity and duration of force.

→ Folding occurs when compressional forces are applied to rocks that are ductile or flexible.

→ Folding results in formation of fold mountains, e.g., Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes, etc.

→ Parts of Fold:

• Limbs
  Both sides of a fold are called limbs
• Axial
  A plane that divides the fold into two parts
• Axis
  May be vertical, inclined or horizontal
• Anticlines
  Limbs sloping downward with central portion getting raised up
• Synclines
  Limbs sloping towards each other with central portion located at lower elevation

→ Fold mountains are classified depending on their age.

→ Fold Mountains:

1. Old Fold Mountains (Over 200 million years)
Example : Aravalis in India, Urals in Russia,
Appalachians in USA

2. Young Fold Mountains (10 to 25 million years)
Example : Rockies and Himalayas

→ Types of Folds

1. Symmetrical (axial plane is vertical)
2. Asymmetrical (axial plane is inclined)
3. Overturned (one limb lies above other limb)
4. Recumbent (axial plane is almost vertical)
5. Isoclinal (limbs slope in the same direction)

→ Faulting :

• Faulting can be classified according to displacement in rocks. The plane of fracture is called fault.
• Faulting results in the formation of block mountains and rift valleys.

→ Types of Faults:

1. Normal Fault (portion of land slides down along fault plane)
2. Thrust Fault Reverse Fault (portion of land on one side gets detached and moves on the other side)
3. Reverse Fault: (portion of land is thrown upward)
4. Tear Fault (movement occurs along the plane in horizontal direction)

→ Tensional forces tend to pull the crust apart and faults are developed.

→  The tension may cause subsidence in the central portion of the crust between two adjacent faults, forming graben or rift valleys, which have steep walls. For e.g., African Rift Valley, Narmada and Tapi Rift Valleys in India.

→  Sudden movements refer to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Earthquake refers to shaking of the ground due to release of stress and energy.

→  The point where the accumulated stress gets released within the earth’s crust is called seismic focus.

→  A point directly above it, on the surface of the earth is the epicentre.

→  The earthquake waves are recorded by an instrument called seismograph.

→ Causes Of Earthquakes

1. Volcanicity
2. Tectonic movement
3. Anthropogenic causes

→  Classification of Volcanoes:
Eruption:

• Formation of mountains and continents
• Eruption through fissures

Periodicity:

• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct or dead

→ Types of Volcanic Materials:

1. Liquid material
2. Solid materials
3. Gaseous materials

Liquid material:

• Acidic Lava
• Basic Lava

Solid materials:

• Dust Particles
• Rock Fragments

Gaseous materials:
Smoke

→ Three major belts or zones of earthquake and volcanoes:

1. Circum-Pacific Belt
2. Mid – Atlantic Belt
3. Mid-Continental Belt

Circum-Pacific Belt: Ring of Fire
Mid – Atlantic Belt: Mid – Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Continental Belt:

1. Alpine Mountain Chains
2. Mediterranean Sea
3. Fault Zone of Eastern Africa

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 6 Population in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 6 Population in India

→ Population :

• It refer to the number of people living in an area at a given point of time.
• It is measured once in every 10 years.
• It is measured through census survey.
• India ranks second in the world next to China.
• Population statistics are collected, compiled and published by Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.

→ Kautilya wrote ‘Arthashastra’ in 3rd century B. C.

→ Year 1872 is marked as first population Census of India

→ World population crossed 500 crores on 11th July, 1987

→ 11th July is observed as “World Population Day”

→ There was marginal decline in population during the period 1911 – 1921 due to spread of epidemics – influenza, cholera, plague, malaria, etc.

→ The year 1921 is designated as ‘Year of Great Divide”.

→ Theories Of Population Growth

(a) Malthusian Theory
(b) Theory of Demographic Transition

(a) Malthusian Theory:

• Thomas Robert Malthus
• “An Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798)
• Population increases in Geometric Progression and Food supply increases in Arithmetic Progression (Imbalance between population and food supply)
• Imbalance can be balanced by preventive checks and natural checks

(b) Theory of Demographic Transition:

• A. J. Coale and E. M, Hoover
• “Population growth and Economic Development in low-income countries” (1958).
• This theory explains transition from high to low birth rates and death rates.
• Stage of Demographic transition:
  • First stage (Low growth of population)
  • Second stage (High growth of population)
  • Third stage (Low or Stable population)

→ Features of 1st Stage of Demographic Transition.

Low growth of population
↑
High birth and High death rate
↑
People ruled by old customs and beliefs
↑
Illiteracy among people, mass poverty, orthodoxy etc.
↑
Agriculture as main occupation (Pre-industrialised and primitive stage)
↑
Low economic development

→ Features of 2nd Stage of Demographic Transition.

Experienced by India and other developing countries
↑
Birth rate remained high
↑
Death rate falls rapidly
↑
Improvement in economic development
↑
Introduction of Industrialisation

→ Features of 3rd Stage of Demographic Transition.

Experienced by all developed countries
↑
Stable Population growth
↑
Fall in Birth and Death Rate
↑
Improvement in Literacy rate
↑
Shifting of people from rural to urban
↑
Structure of economy changes
↑
Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation

→ Concept related to Population Growth

• Birth rate
  (Fertility Rate)
• Death Rate
  (Mortality Rate)
• Survival Rate
  (Survival Rate = Birth rate – Death rate)

→ Situation where the growth of population is faster than the growth and development of an economy, it is called as Population explosion.

→ Causes:
Low Death Rate:

(a) Improvement in medical and health facilities.
(b) Decline in Maternal Mortality Rate
(c) Fall in infant mortality rate
(d) Increase in literacy
(e) Use of nutritious food
(f) Disaster management
(g) Other factors

High Death Rate:

(a) Illiteracy
(b) Universalization of marriage
(c) Age of marriage
(d) Preference of Male child
(e) Joint Family System
(1) Dependence on Agriculture
(g) Widespread Poverty
(h) Lack of awareness about family welfare services

→ Effects of Population Explosion:

(a) Increased pressure on land
(b) Increased pressure on agriculture
(c) Pressure on infrastructure and basic amenities
(d) Imbalance between demand for and supply of food
(e) Inflation
(f) Environmental problems
(g) Social problems
(h) Low national income

→ Measures To Check Population Explosion:

(A) Economic Measures
(B) Social Measures
(C) Population Policy Of India

(A) Economic Measures

• Expansion of industrial sector.
• Creation of employment opportunities.
• Removal of poverty
• Equitable distribution of income and wealth.

(B) Social Measures

• Spread of education
• Improving the status of women
• Raising the minimum age of marriage

(C) Population Policy Of India

• Family Planning Programme
• Family Welfare Programme
• National Population Policy, 2000 (NPP)

→ Feature Of National Population Policy:

• Free and compulsory education — upto the age of 14 years.
• Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
• Reduce Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to below 100 per 1,00,000 live births.
• Universal immunization of children.
• Delayed marriage for girls — preferably from 18 to 20.
• Prevention and control of communicable diseases.
• Achieve a stable population by 2045.

→ Human Resource :

• Population constitutes a nation’s valuable human resource.
• It is not equally distributed all over the world.
• It differs in terms of education, age and sex.
• UNDP — introduced the concept of‘Human Development’ in 1990.

→ Role of human resources in economic development:

• Contributes to reduction in civil disturbances in a society, then increased political stability.
• Contributes to improvement in life expectancy and literacy rate. This improves the quality of life.
• Provision of educational facilities especially among women that contributes to population control.
• Helps to bring about research and development.
• It leads to .increase in human productivity.
• It leads to overall improvement in the society.

Word Meaning:

rapidly – very quickly; epidemics – wide spread of disease at particular time; decadal – a period of 10 years; designated – selected; tremendous – huge; declining – decreasing; propounded – presented; geometric progression – increased in numbers with a constant ratio between each other; arithmetic progression – a sequence of numbers which differs the same from each other; preventive checks – precautionary measures; demographic transition – changes in structure of population; primitive – ancient/old; superstitions – old belief; verge – border; inferences – conclusion; rigid – unable to change; obligations – something one must do as per the law; ignorant – lack of knowledge: optimum – favourable; beliefs – religious feelings or opinion; malnutrition – not having enough food as required; inflation – increase in price; enrichment – improve the quality; mortality – death; life expectancy – expected age of survival; rational – well reasoned; immunization – making a person to immune against infection; orthodoxy – traditional.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 7 Second Urbanisation in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 7 India and Iran (Persia)

Indian Subcontinent and Iran:
Excavated evidence has sufficiently proved that the trade and cultural relations between the Indian subcontinent and Iran have continued since the Harappan times. The Empire of Elam, contemporary to the Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’. Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’.

The Iranian empire was established by Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the tribe of Tars’. This tribe dwelt in the mountainous region in the northwest of Iran and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was known by the tribe’s name, Tars’. Even the main city of the region was known by the same name, Tars’. Greeks knew the city by the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire was known as ‘Persian Empire’ because it is originated in the Pars region.

Conflict between the Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece:
Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around the mid of the 6th century B.C.E. As a result, the Ionian Greek city-states under the Lydian rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’. During the reign of Daryush I all Ionian city-states got together and rebelled against the Achaemenid rule.

The rebellion was subdued completely after a struggle of five years by the Achaemenid army. The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion are important for understanding the interrelationship between Greece and Persia in the ensuing period.

Arrian was a Greek historian of the 1st century C.E. He wrote a book called ‘Anabasis of Alexander. He has referred to the correspondence between Daryush III, the last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander. Daryush had written to Alexander about the release of his mother, wife and children.

Alexander responded by reminding Daryush of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors. Alexander wrote that he had arrived in Russia by crossing the ocean, with the intention of punishing the aggressive Persians.

Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and India:
The Achaemenid emperors established the Persian empire by conquering smaller kingdoms in the northeast region of the Indian subcontinent and expanded their boundary up to Punjab. It was the same period when the Magadha empire was on the rise in India.

It becomes apparent from the inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors and the records kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II had conquered the region of the Kabul basin (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had formed its eastern boundary.

Alexander crushed the Achaemenid empire and the region of Punjab which was the part of ‘ Achaemenid empire. The revenue received by the Achaemenid empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the Indian subcontinent was more than any other provinces. According to Herodotus, this revenue amounted to 360 talents of gold dust.

Political and Cultural Impact of the Iranian Contact:
The Persian supremacy prevailed in the Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. However, it had ended much before the advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact left by the Persian contact in the period of two centuries, one thing can be noticed prominently.

It is about the administrative system set by the Persian rulers. Every conquered region was annexed to their territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor) was appointed as its chief administrator. This method was followed by Alexander and later by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers as well.

The Aramaic script came into use in the north-eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic script.

The method of installing royal edicts at vantage points seems to be borrowed from the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions. Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had sent many explorers to gather information about the course of the river Sindhu and the Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who was well- known. He was the first Ionian Greek who stepped on the Indian land.

Taxila:
Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka as the king of‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the capital of Kang Takshaka. The archaeological evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary past. It was the capital of Gandhara mahajanapada. The archaeological remains of this city are strewn over a large area that comprises 18 archaeological sites.

They are enlisted as the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. Evidence of prehistoric people using microliths have been found at Taxila and in some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic village at Taxila was settled around 3500 B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site called ‘Sarai-Khola’.

Advent of Alexander:
Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He, however, could not establish his rule there for a long time. The information of his advent primarily comes from the Greek historians like Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, Plutarch and Justin.

At the time of Alexander’s advent the Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and Afghanistan had weakened and a number of small kingdoms had come into existence. The political strife stopped them from uniting to resist Alexander’s invasion. Alexander became the king of Macedonia in 334 B.C.E.

In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at Babylon, while he was on his way back to Greece. Alexander’s invasion of India did not have far-reaching impact on the political scenario of India. In a very short period after his death, Chandragupta Maurya established his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan. It was the beginning of a new era in the Indian history.

Glossary:

→ Fortification – A defensive wall or other reinforcement built to strengthen a place against attack.

→ Rebellion – The act of fighting against authority or refusing to accept rules.

→ Confederacy – A union of states, groups of people or political parties with the same aim.

→ Provocating – Incitement.

→ Snubbed – To treat someone rudely.

→ Barter System – Exchange of goods and services for other services in return. An old method of exchange.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12th Notes

• 12th Science Physics Notes Maharashtra State Board
• 12th Science Chemistry Notes Maharashtra State Board
• 12th Science Biology Notes Maharashtra State Board
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Economics Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Geography Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes
• Secretarial Practice 12th Commerce Notes
• Organisation of Commerce and Management 12th Notes
• Book Keeping & Accountancy Notes 12th

Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Liberty and Rights students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Liberty and Rights

Introduction:
Political concepts involve an analytical study of ideas that are central to political thought. In this chapter, we will examine the political concepts of Liberty and Rights. These deal with the status of the individual in society.

We will study the nature of what the concept of liberty should include i.e., views of thinkers like Hobbes, Locke. Rousseau, Mill, Bentham, classification, etc. This chapter also includes the study of rights, its classification, etc.

Meaning And Nature Of Liberty:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’. Thus liberty means freedom. People are said to have liberty when the rights and duties of the citizens in a democracy are secured by the State. Liberty is an essential feature of a democracy.

Liberty has been explained in different ways such as an absence of restraints, freedom of choice, and availability of favourable conditions towards the attainment of happiness. It is also understood as self-rule i.e., freedom from foreign rule.

Views Of Different Thinkers About Liberty:
Thomas Hobbes: He explained liberty as the freedom that an individual has to act without restraint.

John Locke: He explained liberty within the context of morality. Liberty is a natural right of an individual which should be enjoyed rationally. Locke’s concept of liberty focuses on the absence of restraint and the freedom of choice.

Jean Jacques Rousseau: He looked at liberty from a collective perspective. His concept of liberty frees the individual from a class-based system and inequality. He did not consider liberty as a natural right. Rousseau stressed freedom of choice and the availability of favourable conditions in the concept of liberty.

Harold Laski: He explained liberty as the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.

Jeremy Bentham: He looked at liberty from the perspective of attainment of happiness i.e., the principle of ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’.

John Stuart Mill: He supported individual liberty and opposed unrestrained controls by the state.

Indian Concept Of Liberty:
Traditionally, in India, liberty is a spiritual idea signifying ‘salvation or emancipation from the cycle of birth and rebirth’. However, in modern times, liberty is understood as liberation from social constraints.

In British India, the concept of liberty was accepted as –

• Laws made by the British for the protection of individual rights e.g. law for the abolition of sati.
• Views of great reformers like Mahatma Phule, Dr Ambedkar. They believed liberty means freedom from caste inequality as well as from social constraints i.e., the liberation of lower castes from the domination of the upper castes.
• Mahatma Gandhi accepted the concept of Swaraj as liberty. This was a comprehensive concept that included freedom from British rule and western cultural domination. It gave more importance to self-governance, self-discipline and human values.

Two Concepts Of Liberty:
Isaiah Berlin discussed about Negative and Positive liberty in his famous essay, ‘Two concepts of Liberty’ Positive liberty emerged from modern liberalism while negative liberty emerged from Classical and Neoclassical liberalism. The core values of liberalism are individualism, rationalism, tolerance and justice. Positive liberty was advocated by Rousseau and Marcuse.

They advocated a correlation between liberty, equality, justice, and collective interest. Rousseau explained that the State is a sovereign power that represents the ‘General Will’. Hence, he supported the idea of state control over the individual. Marcuse advocated collective control as essential in community life.

Negative liberty opposes all restraints on liberty, especially by the State. It was advocated by Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and others.

Rights:
Rights are those social conditions that are necessary for the development of our personality. Laski defines rights as ‘those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best.

Natural Rights – These rights are universal in character e.g., the right to life and liberty.

Moral Rights – These rights are based on the conscience of the person and of the community e.g., respect for elders.

Legal Rights – These rights are granted by the State and are codified in law.
These rights are not universal. Legal rights maybe

• Civil rights: related to the person and property of the individuals e.g., right to liberty, equality, property,
• Political rights: are available only to citizens in a democratic state and aim to encourage active political participation e.g., the right to vote, to contest elections.

Human Rights:
Meaning: Each person is entitled to certain basic, natural rights, simply by virtue of being a human being. Human rights are inalienable, universal, dynamic, related to the concept of justice and are necessary to uphold human dignity. Human rights include the right to life.

The General Assembly of the U.N.O. adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.) on 10th December 1948. The U.D.H.R. combines the ideals of liberty, equality, justice and fraternity with natural and civil rights.

There are instances of human rights violations in many countries of the world due to poverty, malnutrition, discrimination and deprivation. Underprivileged sections of society, women, children are most vulnerable where violations of rights are concerned.

Part III of the Indian Constitution enumerates the Fundamental Rights of citizens. These include the Right to equality, Right to freedom, Right against exploitation, Right to freedom of religion, Cultural and educational rights and Right to constitutional remedies.

The judiciary has interpreted the meaning of rights and liberty in various judgements, e.g., in the Francis Coralie Mullin vs Union Territory of Delhi case (1981), the Supreme court gave a comprehensive meaning of liberty. The right to life meant the right to live with dignity. In the K. S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India case (2017), the Supreme Court declared right to privacy as a fundamental right.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory

Introduction:

• Memory is an ability by which information ¡s encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.
• The hippocampus plays an important role in the storage of memory.
• Memory functions to preserve our sense of identity, interpersonal relationships, solving problems, and making decisions.
• Three basic processes of memory are Encoding! acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval.
• Three stages of memory are Sensory information store, Short Term Memory (STM), and Long Term Memory (LTM).
• Baddeley called STM a working bench of memory. He has given the working memory model.

Measurement of memory:

• The major ways of measuring memory are: Recall, Recognition and Relearning.
• Recall method: It involves remembering a fact, event or object that is not currently
  physically present and requires a direct uncovering of information from memory. Recall can be free or serial.
• Recognition method: Here, a person has to point out or recognise previously learnt material which is presented to him in a different context. It is relatively easier than the recall method.
• Relearning method: It measures retention by measuring how much faster one learns a previously learnt material after time interval. It is also known as saving method as there is saving of time when one relearns the same material.

Some phenomena related to memory:

1. Flashbulb memory: Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event. These memories are preserved in autobiographical in considerable detail, almost like a photograph.
2. Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Sometimes when we search through library of memory experiences to retrieve information from LTM, we cannot recall it even when we have that information on the tip of the tongue.

Forgetting and its causes:

1. Forgetting is the failure to retrieve the material from long-term memory.
2. The pioneer of experiments on forgetting was Hermann Ebbinghaus.
3. The various causes of forgetting are trace decay, trace distortion interference, and motivated forgetting.

Memory improvement techniques:

• Keyword method: Here, any two different pieces of information can be linked together.
• Encoding specificity: It states that memory ¡s improved when information is available while learning is also available at the time to recall.
• Method of loci: It involves creating an imaginary route to remember better.
• Mnemonic devices: Mnemonics include acronyms or the first letter technique.
• Practice and rehearsal: It results in better retention and recall.
• Minimizing interference: We should not learn similar subjects together.
• POWER method: Here, P stands for Preparation, O stands for Organisation, W stands for Work, E stands for Evaluation, and R stands for Rethinking.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India

Rise of Mahajanpadas:
By 600 B.C.E. sixteen Mahajanapadas were established in India, from the northwest region to Magadha. Conquering other Janapadas and annexing their territory permanently to one’s own, became a regular practice in the times of Mahajanapadas. Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the creation of the large empire like Magadha. Ancient India once again witnessed the rise of cities. This process is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada:
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas or Assak is identified with the region of present-day Maharashtra. Ashmaka/Assaka was the only Mahajanapada that was situated in the region known as ‘Dakshinapatha’. Remaining fifteen Mahajanapadas were in north India. Suttanipata describes the region of Dakshinapatha in great details. It was the region of an important trading route.

Second Urbanisation in India:
The Janapadas with definite geographic borders and administrative system were established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The ambition to expand geographic boundaries and the political conflict caused by it left some Janapadas more powerful than others.

It resulted into the creation of sixteen Mahajanapada from Afghanistan in the northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching to the banks of the Godavari in the south. The capital cities of the Mahajanapadas and some other cities, which flourished because of prospering trade once again brought the age of urbanisation in India. It is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Mahajanapadas and The Contemporary Cities:
Kasi: This Mahajanapada was a powerful one in the beginning of the Mahajanapada period. Varanasi was its capital. The kings of Kasi were ambitious. According to the jataka stories they aspired for the highest position among all contemporary kings (Sabbarajunam aggaraja).

Kosala: Ancient Kosala encompassed the regions of Uttar Pradesh in India and Lumbini in Nepal. Sharavasti was its capital city. King Prasenjit (Pasenadi) was a disciple of Gautama Buddha. Kosala was destroyed and annexed permanently to Magadha by King Ajatashatru.

Anga: The city of Champa was the capital of Anga. It was a centre of the marine trade. It was permanently annexed to Magadha by King Bimbisara.

Magadha: Magadha had its first capital at the city of Girivraja, also known as Rajagriha. Girivraja was surrounded by five hills making it formidable for the enemies. King Bimbisara was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The policy of territorial annexation of other kingdoms was started during the reign of Kind Bimbisara.

Vrujji/Vajji: This was a confederation of eight clans, known as ‘Maha Aththkula’. It included clans like Videha, Lichchhavi, Vajji, Shakya, Dnyatruk, etc. The ‘Ekapanna Jataka’ mentions that Vaishali, the capital of this Mahajanapada. was fortified with three surrounding walls. It had three entrance gates and bastions.

Malla: The city of Kushinara or Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhpur district was the capital of this Mahajanapada. Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana chaitye TamraPatra iti”. By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla Mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya empire.

Chedi: This Mahajanapada had occupied Bundelkhand and the region around it. The city of Shuktimati or Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar Pradesh.

Vamsha or Vatsa: Kaushambi was the capital (Kosam near Allahabad) of this Mahajanapada. According to the tradition of Purana texts. Hastinapur was destroyed by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by Bhasa is KingUdayan. He was the king of the Vatsa Mahajanapada and the contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

Kuru: The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Delhi. Its name was Indraprastha or Indrapattana. According to the Jataka literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra.

Panchala: The Mahajanapada of Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north) Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala. The river Bhagirathi was the natural boundary that divided the Mahajanapada Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala was located near the village of Ramanagar, district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya, present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of Dakshina Panchala.

Matsya: The capital of this Mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat is one of the places where Ashokan edicts have been found.

Shoorasena: This Mahajanapada was located on the bank of the river Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura. Greek historians have mentioned the name of the Mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the Mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged into the Maurya empire.

Ashmak/Assak: We have seen earlier that Potali was the capital of Ashmak Mahajanapada and probably it was a feudatory state of Kashi maha janapada.

Avanti: This Mahajanapada encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad and its neighbouring regions in Madhya Pradesh. Avanti Mahajanapada was divided into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti. Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata, District Khandwa) was the capital of Dakshina Avanti.

Gandhara: This Mahajanapada had spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. He had established diplomatic relations with King Bimbisara.

Kamboja: This Mahajanapada is mentioned in the ancient literature along with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its capital. Kamboja was well-known for its excellent horses and its horsemen warriors for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people had resisted Sinkandara’s advent.

Mahajanapadas: Administrative System, Guilds
Administrative System: They were ‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’, ‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and ‘Parmeshthyi’. It is difficult to define these terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the term Rajya and Saamrajya in the context of sacrificial system.

According to it, the king who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’ performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’ under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’.

Guilds (Shrenis): Along with agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and systematic management and organisation of the trade are also essential factors for the prosperity of a state. The guilds of the merchants and the artisans played a great role in the growth of the Mahajanapadas into wealthy states.

These ‘ guilds had their own way of organisation and functioning. Guilds had their own, strict rules. Hence, they had a stringent structure. This stringent structure is perceived as one of the main reasons of the rise of the caste system.

Philosophy and Various Sects: At the end of the Vedic period questions about abstract aspects of human existence began to gain attention. It included questions about matters like the meaning of human life, its significance in the infinite nature of the universe, the mystery of death and the journey of the soul after death. It resulted in the creation of various philosophical texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’.

The latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’ school, which openly opposed the social organisation based on the Vedic authority, beliefs and rituals. This school also propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only those things, which are subject to sensory experience.

The 6th century B.C.E. is important from this point of view. The rising of a class of wandering mendicants known as ‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was characteristic of this period. They renounced the householder’s life and wandered with their disciples, in search of the ultimate truth. Among the various streams of thoughts, a large number of people were attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

New Religious Trends:
Jainism: The Jain religion has a tradition going back to very ancient times. According to the tradition of Jain religion, Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the last ‘Tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd Tirthankara. He gave four vows of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya) and non-possession (Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy (Brahmacharya) to it.

These five vows are known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. Mahavira founded the Jain Sangha. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya was a contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth principal Acharya of the Jain Sangha. According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta Maurya had embraced Jain religion. Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’ clan.

His mother, Trishaladevi was from the Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda. Vardhamana Mahavira addressed people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of common people. He preached about good behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to the five vows).

Buddhism: Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries. Gautama Buddha was horn in 563 B.C.E., in Lumbini Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s name was Shuddhodana. Ile was a member of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from the Koliya clan. Gautama Buddha’s wife was Yashodhara. Gautama Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge through various means, such as seeking guidance from various gurus and extreme austerities.

After realising that nothing of it was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya, under a peepal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the bank of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. After that he was known as ‘Buddha’, ‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyarnuni’.

Gautama Buddha preached four ‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths).

1. There is Sorrow (Dukkha) everywhere in the world.
2. The root cause of sorrow is Greed (Trishna).
3. To conquer this greed is the way to cut the sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha).
4. The way to stop sorrow from emerging is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga).

Glossary:

→ Protagonist – The main character in a play, film or book.

→ Satrapy – A province governed by a satrap.

→ Guilds – A medieval association of craftsmen or merchants often having considerable powder.

→ Pluralism – A condition or system in which two or more principles or states coexist.

→ Trisaran – Refers to the ‘Triratnas’ of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management

→ Natural disasters have caused widespread loss of life and property.

Types of Disasters (Based on Origin)

Tectonic:

• Earthquakes
• Volcanic
• eruption
• Tsunamis

Geological:

• Landslides
• Mudslides
• Avalanches

Meteorological:

• Floods
• Cyclones
• Storms
• Heatwaves

Biological:

• Locust attacks
• Pest attacks
• Epidemics (flu, dengue, cholera, etc.

Arthropogenic/Man-made

• Industrial accidents
• Transportation accidents
• Nuclear accidents

→ Natural events that occur in nature and cannot be prevented are called hazards. When they occur in areas inhabited by humans and cause damage, they are termed as disasters.

Hazards :

• Hazards are phenomena that pose a threat to people, structural or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.
• They could be either naturally occurring in the environment or man-made.
• A hazard becomes a disaster when it affects human population, settlements and their activities.

Vulnerability :

• The geographical conditions and circumstances of people or region that make them susceptible to a disaster is known as vulnerability. Hence, if we are better prepared, we can reduce the risk of getting affected by disaster.
• Population living in certain areas are exposed to particular disasters.

Disaster	People/Areas affected
1. Cyclone	People living in coastal areas are more likely to be affected than those in the interior.
2. Earthquakes	People living in seismically active areas are prone to earthquakes.

Also, social, economic and political conditions may make people less or more likely to be affected by disasters, in the same region.

Example :

• The poor are more likely to be affected by disasters.
• Old people and children easily become victims of disasters.
• Densely populated areas more likely to be affected than sparsely populated areas.

Capacity to Cope :

• The ability of people, organisations and systems, using available skills and resources, to face and
  manage disasters is known as their capacity to cope. ,
• Vulnerability is reduced if capacity to cope with the disaster is high.

Effects of Disasters:

Effects of Disasters –

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary

1. Primary

• Occur as a result of the disaster itself

damage during a flood or an earthquake

2. Secondary:
Occur because of primary effects

• Fire ignited
• Disruption of electric power
• Water service as a result of earthquake

3. Tertiary
Long term effects are a result of primary and secondary effects

• Loss of homes
• Permanent changes in the position of river channel
• Storms
• Adverse effect on tourism in an earthquake-affected area

Disaster Management:
Disaster Management Disasters:

1. Preventable

• Gas leakage
• Rail accident

2. Non-preventable

• Volcanic eruptions
• Tsunamis
• Earthquakes (effect can be reduced)

3. Predictable

• Cyclones
• Floods

Disaster Management involves the following processes –

• Creating awareness about disasters.
• Taking steps to reduce its effects
• Evaluating the damage caused by the disasters providing relief, food and medical aid in affected areas involve many people, organisations and processes.

Disaster Management Tasks:

Disaster management tries to :

• Reduce risk to damages or losses.
• Focus on the hazard that causes the disaster.
• Attempt to minimize the adverse impact of the disaster on communities.
• Involve co-ordination from governments, local self-governments, police, military and para¬military forces, NGOs, doctors, scientists, planners, volunteers, groups or communities.

Disaster Management Cycle :

• Disaster Prevention → Disaster Mitigation → Disaster Preparedness.
• Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance to face disasters in future.

Disaster Preparedness :
It involves measures taken to prepare for and reduce effect of disasters.

Disasters Preparedness:

1. Carrying out awareness campaigns
2. Strengthening of the weak structures
3. Preparing plans for households
4. Preparing plans at community level

Mitigation :

• Mitigation is any measure taken to minimize the impact of a disaster before it occurs is known.
• It refers to action taken against potential disasters.
• It is carried out for those disasters which cannot be prevented.
• It helps the people by creating safer communities and reducing loss of life and property.

Mitigation Measures:

1. Community level disaster planning
2. Public awareness and information campaigns
3. Preparedness of hospitals
4. Construction of houses away from hazardous areas.

Mitigation Efforsts:

Structural Efforts:

• Construction of river embankments
• Strengthening existing buildings

Non-structural Efforts:

• Areas training in disaster management
• Regulating land-use
• Public education

Disaster Response :

• It is the way the community responds to the disaster.
• It reflects the preparedness of the community.
• It is the immediate period after the disaster strikes.
• It is concerned with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal condition and providing financial support.

Recovery :
These steps involve measures taken to bring life back to normal in affected areas.

Recovery:

• Restoration of basics services and repair of physical, social and economic damages
• Cleaning of debris
• Rebuilding roads and bridges
• Providing sustained medical care for displaced human and animal population

Rehabilitation :

• It is the last phase of disaster management.
• It involves :
  • Efforts taken to restore normalcy in the long term.
  • Providing housing to the affected, taking important decisions regarding economy, agriculture, etc., which have been affected by disasters.

Role of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS in Disaster Management:

Remote Sensing :

• Remote sensing is very effective in mapping disaster prone areas, particularly flood – affected areas.
• Microwave data – Provides information on flood-inundated areas.
• Remote sensing satellites monitor the path of a cyclone.
• It can provide ample time with warning for evacuation and preparedness in advance.
• Data obtained from meteorological satellites is used for cyclone tracking, intensity and landfall predictions and forecasting of extreme weather events.
• Data from earth observation satellites is used for monitoring disaster events and assessing
  the damages. ,
• Communication satellites help to establish communication in remote and inaccessible areas.
  Navigation satellites are used for providing location-based services.

GPS (Global Positioning System): It is an important tool.

GIS:

• It has emerged as an important methodological tool for effective planning, communication and training in the various stages of the disaster management cycle.
• Plays a vital role in determining the extent of hazards and disasters.
• These techniques help in making planning and policy very easy for implementation.

Disaster Management in India :
Need : India’s geo-climatic conditions and its high degree of socio-economic vulnerability makes it one of the most disaster-prone country in the world.

Steps taken to mitigate the damage potential of national disasters in future at the Government of India level, two institutes were set up in New Delhi.

• The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been established at the centre.
• SDMA has been established at the state level.
• District Authorities at District level.
• National Crisis Management Committee also functions at the centre.
• Ministry for Agriculture – For disasters like drought.
• Military forces, para-military forces such as Home Guard.
• ISRO, NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) also play an important role in disaster management.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State

Introduction:
In this chapter, we shall cover the following political concepts –
(i) Nation and Nationalism (ii) State and Government.
The terms ‘state’, ‘nation’, ‘government’ appear to have the same meaning and are often used interchangeably. However, technically there is a difference in the meaning of these terms.

A Nation has a sense of ‘oneness’ that is psychological and is born out of commonness of ethnicity and race, culture and history, religion, language, etc. A State is a politically organized society within a definite territory. It is used to describe a sovereign country having an independent government in specific territory.

Nation:
Meaning: The word ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Nasci’ meaning ‘to be born’. Thus, the literal meaning of a nation is a people having a common race /ethnicity or cultural linkages.

Ernest Barker defines a nation as a body of men, inhabiting a definite territory, who normally are drawn from different races but possess a common stock of thoughts and feelings acquired and transmitted during the course of common history.

A nation refers to a large group of people, united in common bonds of geography, race, history, religion, language, sharing common objectives.

Features Of A Nation:

• Population: A nation must have a population that has a sense of ethnic, historical and cultural oneness.
• Feeling of community: The emotional dimension of a nation is a perception held by the population of psychological oneness i.e., they are a community.
• Desire to be politically separate: A feeling of unity and of being a nation is a product of the urge for ‘self-determination’. This can lead to a demand for self-governance. This signifies that people who feel united should have the right to decide the type of government that they prefer.

Nationalism:
Meaning: Nationalism is a force which binds the people to a sense of integrity and loyalty to their country. It is a spirit of oneness or common consciousness that binds a community together. Nationalism is a sense of political identity and emotional attachment to one’s ’homeland’.

Features Of Nationalism:

• Nationalism can be productive i.e., Progressive nationalism e.g., India’s freedom struggle or destructive i.e., Aggressive nationalism e.g., in Nazi Germany.
• Nationalism opposes imperialism and colonialism and thus encourages self-determination. Liberation /Freedom struggles all over the world are in resistance to foreign rule or any tyranny.
• Nationalism can help to promote diversity. The core of Indian nationalism is the idea of ‘unity in diversity in respect of religion, region, caste, language, etc.

Forms Of Nationalism:
The forms of nationalism from a political perspective are:

• Liberal Nationalism: Its origins are in the ideals of the French Revolution. President Woodrow Wilson linked the concept of a nation to the right to self-determination and sovereignty.
• Conservative Nationalism: It views a nation as a closely linked society with great importance to patriotism and the concept of ‘motherland’.
• Expansionist Nationalism: It is aggressive nationalism, which leads to imperialism, conquest and colonialism. It was seen in European imperialism by countries like England, Italy, Spain, France, etc.
• Anticolonial Nationalism: It refers to liberation struggles for independence from colonial rule, e.g., Indian or Indonesian freedom struggles from British and Dutch colonialism respectively.

The State:
The urge for political self-determination leads a nation toward statehood. A State is a political community which plays a role in almost every human activity like education, law and order, social welfare, etc.

Meaning of a State: Woodrow Wilson (USA) defined ‘a state is a people organised for law within a definite territory. A state is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent from external control and possessing an organized government to which the inhabitants render habitual obedience.

Elements of a State: The modern State has four essential elements.

Population: A State is an association of human beings. The progress of a state depends on the quality of population. Some states viz. China, India, etc. have a large population while some states have a small population viz. Monaco, Belgium, etc., The population may be homogeneous or diverse for e.g., USSR comprised of many nationalities like Russians, Ukrainians, Latvians, etc. Thus a ‘State’ may comprise of many ‘nations’.

Territory: A State is recognized by its territory. This includes the land area within its boundaries, airspace above the area and surrounding territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles). The area within which the State has the authority to govern is called its jurisdiction.

Some States have small territory e.g., Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives, etc., while other States e.g., Brazil, Russia, India, Australia have a large territory. Most States have compact territory e.g., India, while some states have a scattered territory e.g., Great Britain.

Government: This refers to the agency through which the will of the State is expressed. Modern governments have three organs viz. legislature, executive and judiciary. The Government must be independent. Institutions of the state are ‘public’ institutions and have legitimacy to act on behalf of the State.

These institutions are responsible for making and implementing laws to promote the general welfare of the people. There are various kinds of government based on their creation or style of functioning for e.g., democracy/ dictatorship, republic/monarchy, presidential/parliamentary, etc.

Sovereignty: It signifies the supreme power of the State internally as well as externally. It means an independent nation with its own constitution.

State And Government:
The government is an essential element of the State which is composed of a limited number of elected or nominated persons. It derives its power from the State. Its nature is administrative. A State cannot function in the absence of a government.