Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 15 Introduction to Polymer Chemistry students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 15 Introduction to Polymer Chemistry

Classification of Polymers-

1. Based on source or origin
2. Based on structure
3. Based on intermolecular forces
4. Based on the mode of polymerization
5. No. of monomers
6. Biodegradability

Based on source or origin:

• Natural Jute, linen
• Synthetic Nylon, terylene
• Semisynthetic Acetate, rayon

Based on structure:

• Linear Polyethene
• Branched-chain Polypropylene
• Cross-linked vulcanized rubber melamine

Based on intermolecular forces:

• Elastomers Neoprene
• Fibres Nylon-6 polyesters
• Thermoplastic PVC, Polystyrene
• Thermosetting Bakelite

Based on mode of polymerization:

• Addition Polyvinyl chloride
• Condensation Nylon polyester dacron
• Ring-opening Nylon-6

No. of monomers:

• Homopolymers Polyacrylonitrile
• Copolymers Buna-S, Buna-N

Biodegradability:

• Biodegradable PHBV
• Non- biodegradable Bakelite, Nylon

Natural rubber: It is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene), Cis isomer, exhibits elastic property.

Vulcanization of rubber: The effect of vulcanization enhances the properties like stiffness elasticity, toughness etc. of natural rubber
Natural rubber +1-3% sulphur → Rubber is very soft
Natural rubber + 20-30% sulphur → Rubber is hard.

Polyethene:

(1) LDP (Low-density polyethylene)

(2) HDP (High density polyethylene)

(3) Teflon :

(4) Polyacrylonitrile :

(5) Condensation polymerization. (Polyamide, polyester fibres)

Example : Nylon-6, Nylon-66, Terylene.

(6) Preparation of bakelite :
Formaldehyde + Phenol → Novolac → Bakelite
Other polymers of formaldehyde

1. with urea (NH₂CONH₂) → Moulded plastic
2. with melamine: formaldehyde + melamine → monomer formaldehyde melamine polymer

(7) Preparation of synthetic rubber :

• Buna-S (SBR) Styrene-butadiene rubber
  Styrene + 1, 3-butadiene → Buna-S
• Neoprene rubber
  

(8) Semisynthetic fiber:

(9) Biodegradable polymers :

PHBV (polyhydroxy butyrate-CO-β hydroxy valerate)
3-Hydroxy butanoic acid + 3 Hydroxy pentanoic acid PHBV (ester linkage)

Nylon-2-nylon-6
Glycine + amino caproic acid → Nylon -2-nylon-6

(10) Commercially important polymers :

• Perspex/acrylic glass
• Buna N
• PVC
• Polyacryl amide
• Urea-formaldehyde resin
• Glyptal
• Polycarbonate
• Thermocol.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Biology Notes Chapter 11 Enhancement of Food Production students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Biology Notes Chapter 11 Enhancement of Food Production

Improvement in Food Production-

• Food: It is defined as any solid or liquid substance, which is swallowed, digested and assimilated in the body to keep us well.
• It is an organic, energy-rich, non-poisonous, edible, and nourishing substance.
• Importance of food: It gives us energy for all body activities. It keeps us alive, strong and healthy.

Plant breeding-

1. Plant breeding involves the improvement or purposeful manipulation in the heredity of crops and the production of new superior varieties of crops.
2. It involves genetic alteration of plants to increase their value and utility.
3. Objectives of plant breeding : Some objectives of plant breeding are common (as given below) and some vary according to type and use of the plant.

• To increase crop yield.
• To improve quality of produce.
• To increase tolerance to environmental stresses.
• To develop varieties of plants resistant to pathogens and insect pest.
• To alter the lifespan.

4. Different methods of plant breeding : Introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation breeding, polyploidy breeding, tissue culture, r-DNA technology, SCP (Single cell protein).

5. The present day crops are the result of domestication and acclimatization.
A. Hybridization and its technique :

• Hybridization is an effective means of combining the desirable characters of two or more varieties.
• New genetic combinations can be created by hybridization.
• It exploits and utilizes hybrid-vigour.

4. Types of Hybridization :

• Intravarietal (between plants of same variety)
• Intervarietal (between two varieties of the same species)
• Interspecific (between two species of the same genus)
• Intergeneric (between two genera of the same family)
• Wide/distant crosses : Crosses between distantly related parental plants. Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids are rare to occur in the nature.

5. The main steps of the plant breeding program (Hybridization) :

(1) Collection of variability :

• Germplasm collection : The entire collection having all the diverse alleles (i.e. variations) of all genes in a given crop.
• Germplasm conservation :
  • In situ conservation : Done with the help of forests and Natural Reserves.
  • Ex situ conservation : Done through botanical gardens, seed banks, etc.

(2) Evaluation and selection of parents
(3) Hybridization
(4) Selection and testing of superior recombinants
(5) Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars

6. Green revolution :

• Green revolution is the development of high- yielding improved varieties of wheat and rice through techniques of plant breeding, in the decade from 1961, which helped the farmers to attain record production of agricultural crops in our country.
• Basic elements for Green revolution : The use of seeds of improved varieties of crops for cultivation, expansion of land for cultivation (farm land), optimum use of pesticides and fertilizers, multiple cropping system, modern farm machinery and proper irrigation system.
• Dr. Norman E. Borlaug was awarded the Nobel prize for developing the semi-dwarf varieties of wheat at international centre for wheat and maize.

Steps of hybridization

Germplasm collection:

• Evaluation and selection of parents with different qualities
• Obtaining pure lines by selfing of selected parents for three to four generations
• Identification of parents as male parent (donor) and female parent (recurrent)
• Collection of pollen grains from the flowers of male parent
• Emasculation of flowers of the female parent before anthesis
• Artificial cross (dusting of pollen grains collected from male parent on the stigma of emasculated flowers)
• Bagging, tagging of the emasculated flower of female parent
• Development of fruits and F₁ seeds
• Selection and testing of F₁ hybrid for combination of desirable characters
• Field trials for yield (productivity)
• Testing and the release of variety

7. Indian Hybrid Crops :

(1) Wheat and Rice :

• Hybrid wheat varieties in India : Sonalika and Kalyan Sona
• Semi-dwarf rice varieties in India : Jaya, Padma and Ratna
• Semi-dwarf rice varieties were developed from IR-8 (International Rice Research Institute) and Taichung native-I (from Taiwan) and introduced in India.

(2) Sugar cane :

• Saccharum barberi : Native of North India and it has poor yield and sugar content.
• S. officinarum : Grown in South India, has thicker stem and high sugar contents, but it does not grow well in North India.
• Hybrid varieties developed by crossing these two species have desirable combinations of characters like high sugar content, thicker stem and the ability to grow in North India.
• Sugar cane varieties developed at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu : CO-419, 421, 453

(3) Millets : Hybrid maize (Ganga-3), Jowar (CO-12) and Bajra (Niphad) : High yielding and resistant to water stress.

8. Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance :

• Its objective is to develop varieties that are resistant to plant pathogens.
• It is carried out by hybridization process.
• Some of the plant diseases are as follows.
  

  Plant pathogens	Diseases
  Viruses	Tobacco mosaic disease Chilli mosaic disease
  Fungi	Brown rust of wheat Late blight of potato Red rot of sugar cane Smut of wheat
  Bacteria	Black rot of crucifers

• Disease resistant varieties of different crops :
  

  Disease resistant varieties	Diseases
  Pusa sadabahar of chilli	Chilli mosaic virus, Tobacco mosaic virus and leaf curl
  Pusa shubhra of cauliflower	Black rot and curl blight black rot
  Himgiri variety of wheat	Hill bunt Leaf and stripe rusy
  Pusa swarnim of Brassica	White rust

B. Mutation Breeding :

• Mutation : It is a sudden heritable change in the genotype, caused naturally.
• Natural (physical) mutagens : High temperature, high concentration of C02, X-rays, UV rays.
• Chemical mutagens : Nitrous acid, EMS (Ethyl – Methyl – Sulphonate), Mustard gas, Colchicine, etc.
• Effects of mutagens : Gene mutations and chromosomal aberrations.
• Seedlings or seeds are irradiated by Cobalt 60 or they are exposed to UV bulbs, X-ray machines, etc. The treated seedlings are then screened for resistance to diseases/ pests, high yield, etc.

Mutant varieties :

• Rice : Jagannath
• Wheat : NP 836 (rust resistant)
• Cotton : Indore-2 (resistant to bollworm)
• Cabbage : Regina-II (resistant to bacterial rot), etc.

C. Plant Breeding for Developing a Resistance to Insect Pest :

1. Resistance due to morphological characters :

• Hairy leaves in cotton : Vector resistance from jassids.
• Hairy leaves in wheat : Vector resistance from cereal leaf beetle.
• Solid stem in wheat : Resistance to stem borers.

2. Resistance due to biochemical characters :

• The high aspartic acid and low nitrogen and sugar content in maize : Resistance against stem borers.
• The nectar-less cotton having smooth leaves : Resistance against bollworms.

3. Some pest resistant varieties:

Tissue culture

1. Tissue culture : It is growing isolated cells, tissues, organs ‘in vitro’ on a solid or liquid nutrient medium, under aseptic, controlled conditions of light, humidity and temperature, for achieving different objectives.
2. Explant : The part of plant used in tissue culture.
3. Totipotency : An inherent ability of living plant cell to grow, divide, redivide and give rise to a whole plant.
4. Haberlandt (1902) : He gave concept of in vitro cell culture (plant morphogenesis).
5. The plant tissue culture medium : It consists of all essential minerals, sources for carbohydrates, proteins and fats, water, growth hormones, vitamins and agar (for callus culture).
6. The most preferred medium for tissue culture : MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium.

7. Types of tissue culture :

• Based on the nature of explant : Cell culture, organ culture and embryo culture.
• Based on the type of in vitro growth : Callus culture (solid medium is used) and Suspension culture (liquid medium is used).

8. Requirements of tissue culture :

(1) Maintenance of aseptic conditions :

• Sterilization of glassware : It is carried out using detergents, hot air oven.
• Sterilization of nutrient medium : It is done by using autoclave.
• Sterilization of explant : It is carried out by treatment of 20% ethyl alcohol and 0.1% HgCl₂.
• Sterilization of inoculation chamber (Laminar air flow) : It is carried out by using UV ray tube for 1 hour before performing actual inoculation of explant on the sterilized nutrient medium.

(2) Temperature : 18 °C to 20 °C
(3) pH of nutrient medium : 5 to 5.8
(4) Aeration (particularly for suspension culture)

9. Steps in tissue culture : They are as given in the chart.

• Cleaning and sterilization of glassware and instruments in an autoclave or oven
• Preparation of defined nutrient medium . (MS medium)
• Sterilization of nutritive medium in an autoclave
• (For 20 minutes under constant pressure of 15/lb/inch²)
• Isolation and surface sterilization of explant
• Inoculation of the explant in the culture flask containing sterilized nutrient medium.
  (Inoculation is done in the laminar air flow cabinet unit) Incubation of the inoculated explant
  (cells of explant divide and give rise to callus, within 2-3 weeks)
• Sub culturing of the callus (Division of callus into 3-4 parts which are transferred to fresh culture medium)
• Organogenesis (Initiation of rooting and shooting)
• Plantlet formation
• Hardening of plantlets (Plantlets are transferred to polythene bags containing sterilized soil and kept at low light and high humid conditions for appropriate time period)
• Hardened plantlets are transferred to field

10. Sub culturing : Both the callus and suspension cultures die in due course of time. Therefore, sub culturing is necessary for continuation of the technique. In this a part of callus or suspension culture is transferred to fresh medium.

11. Micropropagation (Clonal Propagation) :

1. It is a type of tissue culture technique by which large number of plants are regenerated using organogenesis.

2. It is used in commercial production of plants like orchids, Chrysanthemum, Eucalyptus, banana, grapes, citrus, etc.

3. Advantages of micropropagation :

• Rapid multiplication of large number of plants within a short period and from a small space.
• Plants are obtained throughout the year, independent of seasons.
• Desirable characters (genotype) and desired sex of superior variety can be maintained for several generations.
• Conservation of rare plant and endangered species.
• Somatic hybrids (cybrids) can be used to develop new variety in short time span.
• High yielding varieties of banana like Shrimati, Basarai and G – 9 are used in Maharashtra.

12. Applications of tissue culture :

• Production of disease free plants and haploid plantlets.
• Production of stress resistant plants, micropropagation.
• Protoplast culture.
• Production of secondary metabolites.
• Culture of rare plants.
• Somaclonal variations.
• Application of tissue culture in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, genetic engineering and physiology.

Single cell protein (SCP)-

1. Conventional method to increase food yield : Use of different methods of crop improvement, biofertilizers, biopesticides, chemical fertilizers and high yielding varieties.
2. Nonconventional methods to increase the
food yield : Use of SCP .
3. , SCP is required to meet growing demand for
protein and to avoid protein malnutrition.
4. Single cell protein : It is a crude or a refined edible protein, extracted from pure microbial cultures or from dead or dried cell biomass.
5. Substrates used for the production of SCP : Wood shavings, sawdust, corn cobs, paraffin, N-alkanes, sugar cane molasses, human and animal wastes.
6. The microorganisms used for the production of SCP :

• Fungi : Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma viride
• Yeast : Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida utilis
• Algae : Spirulinaspp, Chlorella pyrenoidosa
• Bacteria : Methylophilusmethylotrophus, Bacillus megasterium

7. Advantages of Single Cell Protein :

• Microbes multiply fast. Hence, a large quantity of biomass can be produced in a short duration.
• The microbes can be easily genetically modified to vary the amino acid composition.
• SCP is a rich source of proteins (43% to 85% WAV basis), vitamins, amino acids, minerals and crude fibres.
• As waste materials are used as a substrate for SCP there is less pollution.

i. e. SCP can be used as fodder for achieving fattening of calves, pigs, in breeding fish, in poultry and cattle farmimg.

Biofortification-

1. Biofortification is a method of developing crops for having higher quantity and quality of vitamins, minerals and fats, to overcome problem of malnutrition.
2. Objectives of biofortification :

• Improvement in protein content and quality
• Improvement in oil content and quality
• Improvement in vitamin content
• Improvement in micronutrient content and quality

3. Methods of development of biofortified varieties : Conventional selective – breeding practices and r-DNA technology.

4. Some examples of biofortification :

• Fortified Maize (Twice the amount of amino acids – lysine and tryptophan)
• Wheat – Atlas 66 (High protein content)
• Rice (Has 5 times more iron)
• Carrot and spinach (Enriched with vitamin A and minerals)
• Bittergourd, tomato (Enriched with vitamin C enriched, developed by IARI)
• Animal husbandry-

1. Animal husbandry is an agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
2. It deals with care and breeding of livestock like buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats, etc. which are useful to : humans.
3. Products obtained from animals : Milk, eggs, meat, wool, honey, silk, etc.
4. The production can be increased by –

• Effective management procedures
• New technologies in various farm systems to j improve quality and productivity
• Use of industrial principles of production processing and marketing

5. Management of farms includes selection of high yielding breeds, taking care of food requirements, supply of adequate nutritional sources, cleanliness of the environment and maintenance of health.

6. Management of farm animals includes veterinary supervision, vaccination, high yielding cross breed development, production and preservation of products, distribution and marketing.

A. Animal breeding :

1. Aims of animal breeding :

(1) To increase the yield of animals.
(2) To improve the desirable qualities of the products.
(3) To develop breeds with desirable characters.

2. Breed : A group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like general appearance, features, size, configuration, etc.

3. Types of breeding :

(1) Inbreeding : Mating of two closely related individuals within the same breed for 4 to 6 generations.
(2) Outbreeding : Breeding of unrelated animals. It is of following types :

• Outcrossing : Mating of animals within the same breed, but having no common ancestors on either side of mating partners up to 4-6 generations is called outcrossing. [Mote : Outcrossing is not same as interspecific hybridization. ]
• Cross-breeding : Cross-breeding is a practice in which superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of another breed.
• Interspecific hybridization : Mating between male and female animals of two different related species, e.g., interspecific hybridization between horse and donkey produces a mule.

4. Artificial insemination : Used for controlled breeding experiments. Semen from the superior male is collected and injected into the genital tract of the female.

5. Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer (MOET) : MOET provides chances of successful production of hybrids.

B. Dairy farm management:

1. Dairy industry: It involves production, processing, marketing and distribution of milk and various milk products. Cow dung, manure, fuel cakes and gobar gas (for cooking and lighting) are sources of additional income.
2.  Breeds of cows :
   • Indian breeds of cows : Sahiwal, Sindhi, Gir”
   • Exotic breeds of cows : Jersey, Brown Swiss, Holstein.
3.  Breeds of buffaloes in India : Jaffarabadi, Mehsana, Murrah, Nagpuri, Nlli, Surati.
4. Cattle feed : Silage, oilcakes, minerals, vitamins and salts.
5. The cattle shed : It must be clean, spacious with adequate facilities for feeding, watering and lighting.
6. Cleanliness and hygiene of the cattle and handlers is important during milking, storage and transport of milk and milk products.
7. Mechanization of these reduces the chance of direct contact with the product.
8. Daily visit of veterinary doctor to dairy farm is mandatory to diagnose health problems, diseases and for their rectification.

C. Poultry farm management:

1. Poultry : It includes chicken, ducks, turkey, and fowls which are domesticated for their eggs and meat.
2. Allied professions to poultry : Processing of eggs and meat, marketing of poultry products, compounding and sale of poultry feed, poultry equipment, pharmaceuticals, feed additives, etc.
3. Requirements for poultry farm Management:
Selection of proper and disease free breed, suitable and safe farm condition, proper feed and water, hygiene and health care.

4. Poultry breeds (On the basis of their origin) :

• American breeds : Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red
• Asiatic breeds : Brahma, Cochin and Langshan
• Mediterranean breeds : Leg horn, Minorca
• English breed : Australorp
• Indian breeds : Chittagong, Aseel, Brahma and Kadaknath.

5. Best layer (for eggs) : Leghorn.
6. Best broilers (for meat) : Plymouth rock, Rhode Island Red, Aseel, Brahma and Kadaknath.
7. Management of layers : It involves purchase of high yielding chicken, well-ventilated farms, proper feed, debeaking, lighting, waterer, sanitation, culling and vaccination.
8. Management of broilers : It involves selection of breed, housing, temperature, ventilation, lighting, floor space and broiler feed.

9. Poultry diseases :

• Viral diseases : Ranikhet, Bronchitis, Avian influenza (bird flu), etc. Bird flu had serious impact on poultry farming and also caused infection to humans.
• Bacterial diseases : Pullorum, Cholera, Typhoid, TB, CRD (chronic respiratory disease), Enteritis, etc.
• Fungal diseases : Aspergillosis, Favus and Thrush.
• Parasitic diseases : Lice infection, round worm, caecal worm infections, etc.
• Protozoan diseases : Coccidiosis.

D. Apiculture or bee keeping :

• Apiculture is artificial rearing of the honey bees.
• Products obtained by apiculture : Honey, wax, pollen, bee venom and royal jelly.
• Honey bees are important pollinators for crop plants and fruit trees.
• Apis dorsata (Rock bee or wild bee), Apis melltfera (European bee), Apis indica (Indian bee), Apis Jlorea (Little bee) are the four commonly occurring species in India.
• Apis mellifera and Apis indica are the : suitable species for apiculture and hence Eire : called domesticated species.
• Equipment required for apiculture: It includes beehive boxes, comb foundation sheets, bee veil, smoker, bee brush, gloves, gumshoes, uncapping knife, swarm net, queen : excluder, overall hive tool, etc.
• Successful apicultures also requires familiarity with the habits of bees, selection of suitable location, catching and hiving of swarms, management of hives during different seasons, handling and collection of honey, bee wax and other products, periodic inspection for cleanliness of hive boxes, activity of bees and queen, condition of brood, provision of water.
• Pollination of variety of crop plants by honey bees increases the productivity of honey and crop.

E. Fishery:

• Catching, processing, fish farming and marketing of the fish and other edible aquatic organisms is called fishery.
• Some fishes, prawns, lobsters, oysters, mussels, crabs, etc. are commercially important varieties.
• Inland fishery, estuarine fishery and marine fishery are the three main types of fisheries.
• A long coastline of India of about 7500 km and 40 to 50 lakh acres of fresh water bodies together constitute fishery potential.
• Common fresh water fishes, Rohu, Catla, Mrigal, common carp, grass carp, silver carp, etc. while marine fishes such as Hilsa, Bombayduck, sardines, pomphrets, mackerel, etc. are important varieties of fish.
• Fish farming is another occupation related to fishery in which culturing of some varieties of fish is done. Monoculture and polyculture are two main methods of aquaculture.
• Maintenance of fish farm : It involves selection of suitable site, excavation of ponds, requirements of hatchery tank, nursery tank rearing tank, stocking tank or ponds, water source, manures, supplementary feed, etc.
• Fish farming or culturing of commercially important edible fishes is only possible in fresh water bodies.
• Fish spoilage is prevented by preservation methods such as chilling, freezing, freeze drying, sun-drying, salting, canning, etc.
• Fish oil, fish meal, fertilizers, fish guano fish glue and Isinglass are some of the by-products made from the fish.

F. Sericulture:

• Rearing and production of silkworm (Bombyx mori) for obtaining silk is sericulture.
• Types of silk fibres : Mulberry silk, Tussar silk and Eri silk. Best quality mulberry silk is produced by Bombyx mori.

G. Lac culture :

• Tacchardia lacca insect produces lac. Lac is the resinous substance produced by dermal glands of the female insect.
• Plants such as her, peepal, palas, kusum, babool, etc. form the feed of these insects.
• 85% of lac produced in the world is from India.
• Various articles such as bangles, toys, woodwork, polish inks, silvering of mirrors, etc. are produced from lac.
• Artificial inoculation of plants give better and regular supply of lac.

Microbes in human welfare-

1. Biotechnology : It is defined as applications of ‘Scientific and Engineering principles for the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and service to humans or for human welfare’.

2. Microbes in food preparation :

1. Lactobacilli : Dhokla
2. Leuconostoc and Streptococcus bacteria : Dosa and idlis.
3. Microbes as the source of food : e.g. SCR fleshy fruiting bodies of edible mushrooms and truffles (higher fungi).

Dairy Products :

• Curd : Lactobacillus acidophilus
• Yoghurt : Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
• Buttermilk : It is the acidulated liquid left after churning of butter from curd.
• Cheese : The milk is coagulated with LAB. The curd formed is filtered to separate whey and the solid mass is then ripened with growth of mould that develops flavour in it.
  • ‘Roquefort cheese : Ripened by blue- green mold Penicillium roquefortii
  • Camembert cheese : Ripened by blue- green mold Penicillium camembertii
  • Swiss cheese : Ripened by Propionibacterium shermanii. The large holes in Swiss cheese are developed due to production of a large amount of CO₂

Role of Microbes in Industrial Production-

Useful products produced during fermentation : Alcoholic beverages, organic acids, vitamins, growth hormones, enzymes, antibiotics and other molecules of medical significance are produced.

Statins produced by yeast Monascus purpureus are blood cholesterol lowering agents. They are competitive inhibitors of the enzyme that catalyzes synthesis of cholesterol.

1. Production of alcoholic beverages :

• Alcoholic beverages are produced by fermentation : liquors like beer, Whisky and wine.
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. ellipsoidis (Brewer’s Yeast) is used for fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.
• The beverages produced without distillation : Wine and Beer
• The beverages produced with distillation : Whisky, brandy and rum

Traditional drinks :
a. Toddy : Made by fermenting the sugar sap extracted from palm plants and coconut palm.
b. Fenny : Made by fermenting fleshy pedicels of cashew fruits.

2. Production of organic acids :
Microbes are used in the production of a number of organic acids.

• Aspergillus niger – Citric acid
• Aspergillus niger – Gluconic acid
• Rhizopus arrhizus – Fumaric acid
• Acetobacter aceti – Acetic acid (vinegar)

3. Production of vitamins :

(1) Vitamins : Organic nitrogenous compounds capable of performing many life-sustaining functions inside our body.
(2) Examples of vitamins : Thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B₁₂, ascorbic acid, beta-carotene (provitamin A) and ergosterol (provitamin D).
(3) Vitamins are manufactured by fermentation using different microbial sources :

• Vitamin B₂ – i. Neurospora gossypii
  ii. Eremothecium ashbyi
• Vitamin B₁₂ – Pseudomonas denitrificans
• Vitamin C – Aspergillus niger

4. Production of Antibiotics :

(1) Antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced in small amounts by certain microbes (like bacteria, fungi and few algae), which inhibit growth of other microbial pathogens.
(2) They are used in treatment of deadly diseases like plague, whooping cough, diphtheria, leprosy, etc.
(3) Some common antibiotics and their microbial sources are as follows :
(4) Different antibiotics produced from following microbes:

• Chloromycetin → Streptomyces venezuelae
• Erythromycin → Streptomyces erythreus
• Penicillin → Penicillium chrysogenum
• Streptomycin → Streptomyces griseus
• Griseofulvin → Penicillium griseofulvum
• Bacitracin → Bacillus lichenijormis
• Oxytetracycline, Terramycin → Streptomyces aurifaciens

5. Production of Enzymes :

(1) Enzymes : Enzymes are biocatalyst proteins which accelerate biochemical processes.
(2) Uses of enzymes in various industries :

• Textile industry : To improve the quality of the fabrics.
• Pulp and paper industry : Biomechanical pulping and bleaching.
• Food industry : Fermentation for the production of bread and drinks such as wine and beer,
• Detergent industry : Lipase is used because of superior cleaning properties, to increase the brightness and to remove oil stains.
• The extraction of substances like carotenoids and olive oil.
• Enzymes are also used in cosmetics, animal feed and agricultural industries, among others.
• Streptokinase has fibrinolytic effect. Hence, it is used as a ‘clot buster’ in blood vessels of heart patients.

(3) Examples of microbial sources from which enzymes are produced :

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Invertase
• Sclerotinia libertine, Aspergillus niger – Pectinase
• Candida lipolytica – Lipase
• Trichoderma konigii – Cellulase
• Streptococcus spp. – Streptokinase

6. Gibberellin production :

(1) Gibberellin is a growth hormone produced by higher plants and a fungus named Giberella.
(2) Practical applications :

• To induce parthenocarpy in apple, pear, etc.
• Used in breaking the dormancy of seed and also in inducing flowering in Long Day Plants (LDP).
• To enlarge the size of grape fruits.

Microbes in Sewage Treatment –

1. Composition of Sewage carried out in drainage :

• Sewage consists of about water (99.5% to 99.9%) and inorganic and organic matter (0.1 to 0.5%) in suspended and soluble form.
• Composition of sewage varies depending upon the type of waste discharged into water from different industries.
• It includes human excreta, household waste, dissolved organic matter and even pathogenic microbes, discharged water from hospital waste, slaughter house waste, animal dung, discharge from industriad waste (contains toxic dissolved organic and inorganic chemicals), tannery, pharmaceutical waste, etc. also add to sewage.
• It contains bacteria from soil and pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and protozoa) causing dysentery, cholera, typhoid, polio and infectious hepatitis and soil bacteria.
• Bacteria in sewage include coliforms, fecal Streptococci, anaerobic spore forming Bacilli and other types originating in the intestinal tract of humans.

2. Sewage treatment process includes four basic steps:

• Prelinfinary Treatment: It Includes Screening and Grit Chamber.
• Primary treatment (physical treatment) : It involves treatment of sewage in primary sedimentation tanks.
• Secondary treatment (biological treatment): It includes treatment of sewage in aeration tanks.
• Tertiary treatment : It involves passage of sewage water through settling tank and anaerobic sludge digesters.

Microbes in Energy Generation-

1. Biogas is a mixture of methane CH₄ (50-60%), CO₂ (30-40%), H₂S (0-3%) and other gases (CO, N₂, H₂) in traces.

2. Substrates used for biogas production : Cattle dung (most commonly used substrate, a rich source of cellulose from plants), plant wastes, animal wastes, domestic wastes, agriculture waste, municipal wastes, forestry wastes, etc.

3. Biogas Production :

• Most commonly used models of biogas plants are developed by KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries Commission) and IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute).
• A typical biogas plant consists of digester and gas holder.
• Anaerobic digestion involves three processes : Hydrolysis or solublization, acidogenesis and methanogenesis.

4. Benefits of biogas :

• Biogas is a cheap, safe and renewable source of energy.
• It can be easily generated, stored and transported.
• It can be used for domestic lighting, cooking, street lighting as well as small scale industries.
• It burns with blue flame and without smoke.
• It helps to improve sanitation of the surrounding.
• It is eco-friendly and does not cause pollution.
• Sludge which is left over is used as a fertilizer.

Role of Microbes as Biocontrol Agents-

1. Biocontrol or biological control : It is the natural method of eliminating and controlling insects, pests and other disease-causing agents by using their natural, biological enemies.

2. Biocontrol agents : Microbes (bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoans) act as biocontrol agents in three ways : they cause the disease to the pest or compete or kill them.

3. Some examples of Microbial bio-control :

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) : It is used to get rid of butterfly, caterpillars.
• Trichoderma species : Effective bio-control agents against soil borne fungal plant pathogens.

4. Microbial Pesticides and their host:

5. Bioherbicides : They kill the weeds which compete with the main crop in the farm – land for water, space, minerals, light, air, etc. and also act as collateral hosts for several pathogens.
(1) Pathogenic fungi as mycoherbicides :

• Phytophthora palmivora – controls milk weed in orchards.
• Alternaria crassa – controls water hyacinth.
• Fusarium spp. – control most of the weeds.

(2) Bacterial pathogen as herbicides :

• Pseudomonas spp. – attacks several weeds
• Xanthomonas spp. – attacks several weeds
• Agrobacterium spp. – attacks several weeds

(3) Insects as herbicides :

•  Tyrea moth – controls the weed Senecio jacobeac
• Cactoblastis cactorum – controls cacti weeds.

Role of Microbes as Biofertilizers-

1. Fertilizers are the nutrients required for plant growth and increase the productivity of cultivated plants.
2. Types of fertilizers :

• Inorganic fertilizers : They are synthetic fertilizers consisting of mineral salts of NPK mixed in specific proportion. If used excessively, they cause pollution of soil, air and groundwater.
• Organic fertilizers : They are biological in origin and include farm yard manure (FYM), compost and green manure.

3. For better and sustainable agricultural production, organic farming is practised and biofertilizers are used.

4. Biofertilizers include bacterial, cyanobacteria and fungi :

• Bacterial biofertilizers : These include bacteria and cyanobacteria
• Fungal biofertilizers

5. Types of Biofertilizers on the basis of nature and function :

(1) N₂ fixing Biofertilizers :

• The nitrogen fixing microorganisms (diazotrophs) convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds like nitrites and nitrates via ammonia.
• Symbiotic N₂ fixing microorganisms : e.g. Rhizobium, Frankia.
  These are mostly associated generally with roots of higher plants.
• Free-living or Non-Symbiotic N2 fixing microorganisms : e.g. Azotobacter, Clostridium, Beijerinkia, Klebsiella, etc.

(2) Phosphate solubilizing biofertilizers :

• These bacteria solubilize the insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds.
• e.g. Pseudomonas striata, Bacillus polymgxa, Agrobacterium, Microccocus, Aspergillus spp. etc.

(3) Compost making biofertilizers :

• In the composting process microorganisms break down organic matter into dark rich compost or humus.
• Microorganisms found in active compost: Bacteria, fungi, actinobacteria, protozoa and rotifers.

6. Cyanobacteria as biofertilizers :

• They may be free-living or symbiotic, heterocystous or non-heterocystous forms.
• Free living cyanobacteria : e.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Plectonema, Oscillatoria.
• Symbiotic cyanobacteria associated with lichens : Anabaena, Nostoc and Tolypothrix.
• Symbiotic cyanobacteria associated with plants Azolla and Cycas : Anabaena.

7. Fungal biofertilizers :

(1) Mycorrhiza is a fungus which forms symbiotic association with the rhizomes and root of higher plants occurring in thick humid forests.

(2) Two types of mycorrhizal :

• Ectomycorrhizae : Mycelium of these fungi form mantle on the surface of the roots.
• Endomycorrhizae : They grow in between and within the cortical cells of roots.

(3) Benefits of Mycorrhiza :

• Selective absorption of P Zn, Cu, Ca, N, Mn, Br and Fe.
• Enhance water uptake.
• Induce growth by secreting hormones.
• Offer protection to host plant from other microbes, by secreting antibiotics.

(4) Nowadays, mycorrhiza are classified into 8 different types : Ectomycorrhizae,

Endomycorrhizae, Ectendo mycorrhizae, Orchidaceous mycorrhizae, Ericoid mycorrhizae, Arbutoid mycorrhizae, Monotrapoid mycorrhizae and Ophioglossoid mycorrhizae.

8. Biofertilizer microorganisms :

• Rhizobia : Nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants.
  e. g. R. leguminosarum is specific to pea and R. phaseoli is specific to beans.
• Azotobacter: Free living, nitrogen fixing bacterium associated with roots of grasses and certain plants.
• Azospirillum: Free living, aerobic nitrogen fixing bacterium associated with roots of corn, wheat and jowar.
• Anabaena : Filamentous nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria that forms symbiotic relationships with certain plants, such as the coralloid roots of Cycas and Anthoceros thallus. It has Heterocysts (Specialized colourless cells which are the sites for nitrogen fixation). It also fixes nitrogen in free living conditions.
• Azolla : A free-floating water fern. Anabaena present in the dorsal leaf lobe fixes nitrogen.

9. Benefits of Biofertilizers :

• Low cost and can be used by marginal farmers.
• Free from pollution hazards.
• Increase soil fertility.
• BGA secret growth promoting substances, organic acids, proteins and vitamins.
• Azotobacter supply nitrogen and antibiotics in the soil.
• Biofertilizers increase physico-chemical properties of soil-like texture, structure, pH, water holding capacity of soil by providing nutrients and organic matter.

Know the Scientist:

1. Dr. Norman E. Borlaug : Known as ‘Father of the Green Revolution’, ‘Agriculture’s greatest spokesperson’ and ‘The Man Who Saved a Billion Lives’.
A 1970 Nobel Laureate.
He saved millions of lives from famine in India, Mexico and the Middle East.

2. Dr. M. S. Swaminathan : Known as ‘Father of Green Revolution in India’.
He introduced and developed high-yielding varieties of wheat in India.
He is pioneer in mutation breeding in India.
He developed new varieties of wheat like Sarbati, Sonora and NP165.
He advocated environmentally sustainable agriculture, sustainable food security and the preservation of biodiversity.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Bookkeeping and Accountancy 11th Notes Chapter 6 Bank Reconciliation Statement students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 11th Accounts Notes Chapter 6 Bank Reconciliation Statement

Meaning, Importance, And Utilities of Accounting Documents-
The documents which explain all the basic facts (information) of cash and banking transactions such as the date, amount, parties, and purposes of transactions are called Accounting documents. Accounting documents also provide evidence of financial transactions on account of the introduction and increasing use of the Internet and mobile banking, the functioning of the modern bank has undergone a drastic change. Payments and receipts of cash through the internet and mobiles generate instant and automatic evidence useful for concerned parties. Even today payments and receipts are made through cheques and drafts. Similarly a large number of banking transactions are completed by the account holders through visiting the banks.

Types of Bank Documents-
1. PAY-IN-SLIP: Pay-in-slip is an important source document used by the account holder for depositing cash as well as cheques into the bank account. A pay-in-slip book consists of 10 slips or 100 slips. Each slip is divided into two parts, each of which can be separated easily from the other. The longer part of the slip is called foil and the smaller part is called counterfoil.

Before depositing cash or cheque into the bank, account holder is required to fill up both the parts of pay-in-slip. Information regarding name of the account holder, his account number, amount in figures and words, signature, etc is required to be filled up on both the parts of the pay-in-slip. The cashier of the bank accepts cash or cheque along with the duly filled up pay-in-slip. The foil of pay-in-slip remains with the bank for making records in the books of the bank and the counter foil after stamping and signature of the cashier is given back to the account holder for his own reference. Separate pay-in-slips are used for depositing cash and cheque.

The pay-in-slip is a bank printed form provided by the bank free of charge to the account holders to facilitate them to deposit cash or cheque into the bank. On the basis of slip entries are made in the cash book as well as in the bank passbook.

Contents: The pay-in-slip contains the following details:

• Name of the bank and its branch. Usually, they are printed.
• Date of banking transaction.
• Name of the account holder.
• Account No.
• Types of Account.
• Amount deposited in words as well as in figures.
• Form of amount deposited i.e. cheque/cash.
• Signature of the depositor.
• Signature of officer in charge and stamp of bank.
• On the backside of the pay-in-slip, the details of cash or cheque deposited are given.

(a) Specimen form of pay-in-slip is given below: From side.

(b) Reverse (Back-side) of Pay-in-Jip :

Withdrawal Slip:
A source document which is used by the account holder for withdrawing cash from the bank is called withdrawal slip. It is used to withdraw the amount from Savings Account. Before withdrawing cash from the bank, an account holder is required to fill up a withdrawal slip. Information regarding the name of the account holder, his account number, amount in figures and in words, date, signature, etc. are required to be filled up. The account holder is also required to sign on the back of the withdrawal slip. Both the signatures made on withdrawal slip must be matched with the specimen signature recorded in the computer. This is to avoid malpractices.

A person other than an account holder can also withdraw money with the help of a withdrawal slip. In such case, a person appointed to withdraw the money is required to sign on the reverse of the withdrawal slip below the signature of the account holder. While withdrawing the money from the bank, the withdrawal slip must be accompanied by the bank passbook. An account holder is not allowed to carry withdrawal slips outside the bank premises. It is a bearer document. This is because the person holding duly filled in and signed by the account holder can easily withdraw the amount from the bank by signing on the backside. In the case of use of withdrawal slip, account holder gets no document from the bank on such withdrawal.

Contents: Withdrawal slip contains the following details:

• Name of the Bank and its branch. They are generally printed.
• Date of withdrawal of cash.
• Name of the account holder.
• Account Number.
• Amount in words as well as in figures.
• Signature of account holder.

Specimen form of a withdrawal slip is given below.

Bank Pass Book:
A bank passbook is a small booklet given by the bank to the account holder free of charge. In the passbook, an account holder’s transactions with the bank are recorded by the banker chronologically. A passbook is a copy of ledger account appearing in the books of bank. The entries in the passbook are made by the banker.

Nowadays printed entries in the passbook are made through computer. This book has a number of pages and on each page, there are several columns like Sr. No., date, particulars, cheque or withdrawal slip nos., amount deposited, amount withdrawn, balance amount and initials of bank clerk, etc. An account holder is required to carry a bank pass book whenever he goes to bank for a transaction. The bank passbook serves as an identity of the account holder. Account holder cannot pass any entry or make any changes on the Bank passbook.

Importance:

• Bank passbook shows the balance of amount i.e. standing position of account holder with the bank on a particular date.
• It is a documentary proof accepted as an evidence of banking transactions in the court of law.
• It gives confirmation by the bank that all the transactions are made through the bank.

Contents:

• Date of transaction.
• Particulars regarding banking transactions.
• Cheque No.
• Amount withdrawn from the bank.
• Amount deposited into the bank.
• Balance amount.
• Signature of Bank clerk or officer.

Specimen form of the Bank Pass Book is given below:

Bank Statement:
A statement which shows the details of the banking transactions of the account holder during a specific period of time is called a bank statement. It is issued by the banker to its current account holders every month or after a fixed interval of time. It is usually issued by the bank at the end of every month. It may be issued by the bank whenever demanded by the current account holders. It substitutes to the bank passbook.

The current account holder gets a bank statement in place of the bank passbook. Nowadays, many schedule bank instead of issuing the bank passbook, issues a bank statement to its current account holders as well as savings account holders. Periodical information about the deposits of money and cheques in the bank account, withdrawals, issue of cheques opening balance and closing balance, etc., are recorded in the bank statement. Information provided in the bank statement is useful to the account holder to prepare his business plans.

Under computerised accounting system, the printouts of the bank statement are issued to Current Account holders.

Importance:

• The Bank statement provides the information to current account holder about his banking transactions and balance position with the bank.
• By referring bank statement businessman makes arrangement for payments.
• By referring bank statement, the businessmen can try to arrange for overdraft facility from the bank.
• Businessman knows about the clearing of the cheque deposited and issued.

Contents:

• Date of banking transactions.
• Particulars of banking transactions entered.
• Cheque numbers.
• Withdrawal slip nos.
• Amount deposited into the bank.
• Amount withdrawn from the bank.
• Balance amount.

Specimen of Bank Statement is given below:

Bank Advice: Bank advice is a statement or source document prepared and issued by the bank to inform the account holder that his account has been debited or credited for the amount specified therein. If an account holder gives instructions in writing to the bank to pay certain business expenses like insurance premium, share call money, electricity bill, telephone charges, etc., the bank accordingly makes payments and debits the account of the account holder. Similarly, the bank also collects the earnings as well as incomes like salaries, rent, commission, dividend, discount, etc., of the account holders as per their instructions on their behalf and credit their accounts for the amount so collected.

When a bank makes payments to account holders, it issues debit advice to the concerned account holder to inform that his account has been debited for the payments so made by the bank. A Debit advice is also issued by the bank whenever the bank deducts certain charges or commission from the balance amount of the account holder with the bank for the services rendered. Similarly, when a bank collects the fund as per instructions of the account holder from various parties, it issues a credit advice to the concerned account holder to inform that his account has been credited for the account so collected.

Importance:

1. After receiving debit advice and credit advice, the businessman can update his records from time to time.
2. Bank advice serves as an evidence of the transaction made through bank.

Specimen of a bank advice is given below:

Bank Reconciliation Statement-
1. Introduction: When a businessman opens and operates a current account in a bank, he gets a bank passbook, cheque book and a pay-in-slip book free of charge from the bank to operate his bank account. The bank opens the account holder’s account in its ledger and enters therein all the banking transactions carried on with the account holder. The bank passbook is a small booklet in which banking transactions of account holder are recorded by the bank in chronological order.

Thus, the account holder’s banking transactions are recorded in two different books viz. first they are recorded by businessman (i.e. by account holder) in his three column cash book under bank column and secondly they are recorded in the bank passbook by the bank from the bank ledger. For instance, if an account holder has issued a cheque of ₹ 500 in favour of Mr. Sachin S. Shetty, it is first recorded in the three column cash book on credit side under bank column by account holder and then it is recorded on the debit side of bank passbook by the bank soon after it is paid by the bank. When all the banking transactions of account holder are systematically recorded in the cash book and in the passbook, then balance shown by cash book and balance shown by bank passbook as on particular date must agree with each other.

Many a times bank balance shown by passbook and bank balance shown by cash book do not tally with each other. The account holder prepares a statement showing causes of disagreement between two balances usually at the end of every month.

2. Meaning: Bank Reconciliation Statement is a statement which attempts to explain causes of disagreement of balance shown in cash book and balance shown in Bank passbook. In short a Bank Reconciliation Statement is a statement prepared to disclose causes of difference between the balances shown by cash book and passbook. Importance of Bank Reconciliation Statement lies in the fact that it ensures that the bank balance shown. by cash book is reconciled with that of the bank passbook.

Definition: “A statement which is prepared to reconcile the difference between the balance shown by bank column of cash book and balance shown by bank passbook and also showing causes of disagreement of these two balances is called Bank Reconciliation Statement.”

3. Need And Importance of Bank Reconciliation Statement-

• Proper Records: Bank Reconciliation Statement serves a check or follow up on the banker whether the bank is making proper entries in the passbook for cheque or money deposited into the bank and amount withdrawn or cheques issued from the bank.
• Explanation of Causes of Disagreement: Bank Reconciliation Statement, explains and clarifies the causes of disagreement between the balance shown in the cash book under bank column and the balance shown in the passbook.
• Rectification of Errors or Omissions: Bank Reconciliation Statement helps to rectify the mistakes or omissions that take place in the books maintained by the banker as well as the customer.
• Confidence in Bank: In the absence of a Bank Reconciliation Statement, a customer will lose confidence in the bank, because the customer cannot be sure of the correctness of the bank balance depicted in the bank passbook.
• Reduction in the chances of frauds: The Bank Reconciliation Statement helps to reduce the chances of frauds committed by the staff handling the cash.
• Delay in collection of cheques: The Bank Reconciliation Statement explains any delay in the collection of cheques.

Reasons For Differences in Balances-

Reasons or causes responsible for difference in balance shown by passbook and balance shown by cash book are explained below:
1. Some of the banking transactions are entered in the cash book and pass book on different dates, e.g. as soon as cheques are sent to the bank, entries are made in the cash book. But the bank records the same in the passbook only when the cheques are realised, (cheques are deposited but not cleared), then on the date of deposit of the cheques, bank balance in cash book will go up. But passbook balance will not go up, and balance in passbook appears as it is.

2. If some mistakes or omissions are committed by the bank clerk in the pass book or if mistakes or omissions are committed by the businessman in recording business transactions in the three column cash book, then there will be a difference in the balance shown by the passbook and the balance shown by cash book.

3. If banking transactions are entered twice by the bank clerk in the passbook or if they are entered twice by businessman in his cash book, then difference in bank balance in cash book and balance in bank passbook are bound to occur.

4. If banking transactions are recorded by a businessman on the wrong side or in the wrong column of the three-column cash book, difference between balance shown by pass book and cash book are bound to occur.

5. The difference between the balance shown by the Cashbook under Bank column and the balance shown by the passbook also occurs on account of the following reasons:

• When cheques are issued but not presented for payment.
• When direct deposit is made into the bank by the client. .
• Dividend/Interest/Commission collected by the bank but not shown in the cash book.
• Bank charges/direct payment to clients made by the Bank, but not shown in the cash book.
• Dishonour of cheque intimation not received from the bank to record in the cash book.

Specimen Form of Bank Reconciliation Statement-

Bank Reconciliation Statement as on 31st March, 2004-

Formulae of Bank Reconciliation Statement:

(A) When bank balance as per Cash Book is given:

• Cheque issued but not presented for payment.
• Interest and dividend collected by the bank and credited in the passbook, but are not recorded in the cash book
• Direct deposit made by the customer into the bank and credited in the passbook.
• Interest on deposit allowed by the bank and credited in the passbook, but not recorded in the cash book.

Less:

• Cheque deposited into the bank but not realised.
• Commission and bank charges debited by the bank in the passbook but same are not recorded in the cash book.
• Insurance premium or any other expenses paid by the bank recorded in the passbook but is not recorded in the cash book.
• Dishonour of a bill or cheque, recorded in the bank passbook, but not entered in the cash book.

(B) When Overdraft as per Cash Book is given :

Add:

• Cheque deposited into the bank but not realised.
• Commission and bank charges debited by the bank in the passbook but same are not recorded in the cash book.
• Insurance premium or any other expenses paid by the bank and debited in the passbook but is not recorded in the cash book.
• Dishonour of a bill or cheque, recorded in the bank passbook, but not entered in the cash book.
• Interest on Bank overdraft debited in passbook only.

Less:

• Cheque issued but not presented for payment.
• Interest and dividend collected by the bank and credited in the passbook but not recorded in the cash book.
• Direct deposit made by the customer into the bank and credited in the passbook but not entered in the cash book.
• Interest on deposit allowed by the bank and credited in the passbook, but not recorded in the cash book.

(C) When Bank balance as per pass book is given:

Add:

• Cheque deposited into the bank but not realised.
• Commission and bank charges debited in the passbook by the bank, but same are not recorded in the cash book.
• Insurance premium or any other expenses paid by the bank and debited in the passbook but same is not recorded in the cash book.
• Dishonour of cheque or bill of exchange recorded by the bank in passbook but not entered in the cash book.

Less:

• Cheque issued but not presented for payment.
• Interest and dividend collected by the bank and credited in the passbook but not recorded in the cash book.
• Direct deposit made by customer into the bank and credited in the passbook but not entered in the cash book.
• Interest on deposit allowed by the bank and credited in the passbook, but not recorded in the cash book.

(D) When Overdraft as per pass book is given:

Add:

• Cheque issued but not presented for payment.
• Interest and dividend collected by the bank and credited in the passbook but not recorded in the cash book.
• Direct deposit made by customer into the bank and credited in passbook but not entered in the cash  book.
• Interest on deposit allowed by the bank and credited in the passbook but not recorded in the cash book.

Less:

• Cheque deposited into the bank but not realised.
• Commission and bank charges debited in the passbook by the bank but same are not recorded in the cash book.
• Insurance premium or any other expenses paid by the bank and debited only in the passbook.
• Dishonour of cheque or bill of exchange recorded by the bank in the passbook but not entered in the cash book.
• Interest on Bank overdraft debited in passbook only.

Position in Cash Book

• Bank balance as per cash book means debit balance as per cash book.
• Overdraft as per cash book means credit balance as per the cash book.

Position in Pass Book

• Bank balance as per pass book means credit balance as per passbook
• Overdraft, as per pass book means debit balance as per pass book,

(B) Method to ascertain items to be added to and deducted from balance.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Bookkeeping and Accountancy 11th Notes Chapter 4 Ledger students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 11th Accounts Notes Chapter 4 Ledger

Meaning And Definition of Ledger-

(i) Meaning : Ledger is another important and principal book of accounts in which a businessman keeps individual records of persons, properties, expenses, incomes, gains and losses. It is the end point of entries made in the journal, or subsidiary books. Ledger may be in the form of a bound register or cards or separate sheets may be attached and maintained in a loose leaf binder. For every person with whom the business keep dealings, a separate account is prepared in the ledger. Similarly, a separate account is maintained in the ledger for each kind of assets, expenses, losses and gains.

As and when business transactions occur, they are first recorded in the journal and subsequently those recorded entries from journal are transferred and posted to the respective account in the ledger. Each ledger account is totalled at the end of the accounting period. This book contains many pages and each page is called ledger folio. The relationship between the business and a particular account on given date can be ascertained only from the ledger. For example, if a businessman wants to know on a particular date the amount due from a certain customer or debtor, it can be known easily only from the ledger. Various transactions pertaining to different dates of a particular account may be spreaded over in the journal on various pages but in the ledger they are found on one page.

Ledger is also called as book of final entry. The word ‘Ledger’ is originated from the Latin word ‘Ledger’ which means ‘to contain.’ Ledger is the collection of all the account. Ledger contains all the account opened and operated.

(ii) Definition: According to S.P. Jain’s and K.L. Narang’s Advanced Accountancy,
“A Ledger Account may be defined as a summary statement of all the transactions relating to persons, assets, expenses and revenues, which have to be taken place during a given period of time and show their net effect.” According to the Oxford Dictionary, ledger is the main record of the accounts of a business, traditionally, a ledger was a large book with separate pages for each account. In modern systems ledger may consist of separate cards or computer records.

Importance of Ledger-

Importance of Ledger is explained as follows :

• Ledger is useful for maintaining individual records of person with whom the business keep dealings.
• It keeps records of every item of properties, expenses, incomes, gains and losses.
• Amount due from various debtors can be known easily and quickly from the ledger. This will help the businessman to send reminders to recover the outstanding amount due from the debtors.
• Amount due to suppliers or creditors can be known easily and quickly to make timely payments to gain their confidence.
• Trial balance can be prepared easily on the basis of balances ascertained from the ledger accounts. Therefore ledger is necessary for preparation of trial balance.
• It is easier to prepare business planning and strategies on the basis of balances shown by the ledger accounts.
• The financial position of the business can be easily known by referring to balances of various assets and liabilities.
• Various income statements can be prepared on the basis of the balances shown by the ledger accounts.
• Ledger is useful tool to control various expenses because ledger shows accounts of various expenses with total amount spent on them.
• Ledger facilitates the management to get classified information of various accounts such assets, liabilities, capital etc. They can easily prepare plans for various business activities.
  Ledger also facilitates decision making process.

Contents of A Ledger-

The contents of a ledger are explained as below:
A ledger contains many pages and each page is called ledger folio. Each page of a ledger is serially numbered. Each ledger account has two main sides viz. left hand side which is called the debit side and right hand side which is called the credit side. A list of ledger account in alphabetically order is given on the first page of a ledger which is called as an ‘Index’. Each side has four sub-columns. These sub-columns are:

• Date Column: In this column, the date of transaction is written. Date of transaction is written in order of year, month and date. In the beginning of each page the year, month and date are written. For subsequent transactions on the same page only dates are written for the same month and year.
• Particulars Column: In the particulars column the name of the account is written. In the particulars column on the debit side of the account, the name of the account to be credited is written and on the credit side in the particulars column, the name of the account to be debited is written.
• Journal Folio No. Column: In Journal Folio No. (J.F. No.) column of the ledger, the page number of the journal from which the entry is posted is recorded in red ink for cross reference. By referring to the journal page as shown in the ledger, a businessman can understand the nature of transaction by
• reading the journal entry and narration.
• Amount Column: In this column the amount of the transaction is entered in figures.

Specimen of The Ledger :

Steps to be Taken For Preparation of Ledger Account:
(1) At the top of ledger, in the middle, the name of the account should be written.

(2) The date of transaction should be written in date column in the same order as we record in the journal.

(3) In the particulars column on the debit side of the ledger account the name of account credited is written and in the particulars column on the credit side of ledger account, the name of account debited is written. For example the following journal entries are posted in the cash account as follows:

(4) Opening balance of ledger account should be shown as Balance (b/d). Real account like Cash A/c, Furniture A/c, Goods A/c, Machinery A/c. etc. always show debit balances, and liabilities like Capital A/c, Sundry Creditor’s A/c. Bank Loan A/c, etc. always show credit balances.

Posting of Entries From Journal And Subsidiary Books to Ledger-

(i) Posting of entries from journal to ledger :
Transferring or recording journal entries from journal to the respective ledger account is called ledger posting. Ledger posting implies entering the information in the ledger from journal for individual records. Ledger posting is done from time to time by the accountant. The account credited is posted on the credit side of that account and account debited is posted on the debit side of the same account. Process of ledger posting is continued throughout the year. At the end of the financial year all ledger accounts are closed and thereafter they are totalled and balanced.

(ii) Posting” of entries from subsidiary books to ledger:

(1) Single column and double column cash book: While posting the entries from single column and double columns Cash book, Cash Account and Bank Account are not opened. Cash column and Bank column are served as Journal as well as Ledger. Each Person’s Asset’s Account is opened and entries passed on the debit side of cash book are posted to credit side of Person’s A/c or Asset’s A/c. Similarly entries appeared on the credit side of cash book are posted to debit side of related Person’s A/c or Asset’s Account.

(2) Purchase Book: The total of posted to Purchases at the end of the month or year is posted to Purchases Account on the debit side as ‘To Sundries as per Purchases book”. Each Supplier’s Account is opened and related entries are recorded on the credit side as “By Purchases A/c.”

(3) Purchase Return Book / Return Outward Book: The total of Purchase Return Book is posted to Purchase Return A/c as “Sundries as per Purchase Return Book”. Each Supplier’s account is debited with the account of goods returned as ‘To Purchase Return A/c.”

(4) Sales Book: The total of Sales book at the end of month or year is posted to Sales A/c on the credit side as “By Sundries as per Sales Book”. Each Customer’s Account is opened and related entries are recorded on the debit side as ‘To Sales A/c”.

(5) Sales Return Book: The total of Sales Return Book is posted, to debit side of Sales Return Account as ‘To Sundries as per Sales Return Book”. Each Customer’s A/c is credited with the amount of goods returned as “By Sales Return A/c”.

(6) Journal Proper: Each entry from journal is posted to respective Account in the ledger.

Balancing of Ledger account-
Balancing of ledger account means finding the difference between the heavier total, and lighter total of ledger account and recording that difference on lighter total side.
At the end of the accounting year all accounts operated in the ledger are totalled and balanced.
Steps required for balancing of ledger account are given below:

• First do totalling of debit side and credit side of ledger account separately on rough sheet.
• Find out difference by subtracting lighter total from heavier total. Such difference is called balance.
• Draw a single line before making the totals.
• Draw double lines across the amount column after the totals are made.
• If total of debit side of ledger account is heavier than total of credit side of that account, the balance is called debit balance and is written on credit side (i.e. on the side where total is lighter) as “By Balance (c/fd.) or (c/d)”.
• If total of credit side of ledger account is heavier than total of debit side of that account, the balance is called credit balance, and is written on debit side (i.e. on the side where total is lighter) as “To Balance (c/fd) or (c/d),”
• Last year’s closing balance, becomes opening balance of current year. If there is debit balance it should be shown on debit side of concerned account as “To Balance (b/d) or (b/fd)” and vice versa.

Preparation of Trial Balance-
(i) Introduction: As and when business transactions take place, the same are first recorded in the journal in the summarised form and subsequently they are posted to respective ledger accounts. This in short is known as journalisation and ledger posting respectively. This process of normalisation and ledger posting are continuously done throughout the accounting year and then at the end of the accounting year all ledger accounts are closed, totalled and balanced.

On totalling and balancing, some ledger accounts show debit balances and some ledger accounts show credit balances. In rare cases some ledger account do not show any balance. After this process, a statement is prepared by businessman or accountant wherein total of debit side and credit side of every ledger account or net balance shown by every ledger account is systematically recorded to ascertain arithmetical accuracy and to detect errors or frauds committed in the business. This statement is called the trial balance.

(ii) Meaning: Trial balance is an abstract or list of all the ledger accounts as on a specified date showing debit total and credit total of all the accounts or their balances. A trial balance may be prepared on any date, but it must be prepared by a businessman at the close of the accounting year.

(iii) Definitions: (1) “It is the final list of balances, totalled and combined.” – Rolland
(2) “It is a list of abstract of the balances or of total debits and total credits of accounts in a ledger, with the purpose being to determine the equality of posted debits and credits and to establish a basic summary for financial statements.” – Eric Kohler.

(iv) Types of Trial Balance: A trial balance can be prepared in one of the following two forms, viz.
(i) Gross trial balance, and
(ii) Net trial balance. Each of them is discussed below:

(i) Gross Trial Balance: Gross Trial Balance is a type of trial balance in which total of debit column and total of credit column of all ledgers are recorded and posted in respective columns of trial balance. Gross trial balance is prepared by transferring the total of debit column and total of credit column from each ledger account and posted and entered in the respective columns of the trial balance. Gross Trial Balance is not so popular or common in the business world.

(ii) Net Trial Balance: Net trial balance is a type of trial balance in which net balance shown by each ledger account is systematically transferred and recorded. Net trial balance is prepared by transferring net balance shown by ledger accounts in respective columns, i.e. debit balance in debit column and credit balance in credit column of the trial balance. Ledger account which does not show balance is not transferred to trial balance. Net trial balance is more common and popular in the business world. It is extensively used by the business people.

The following illustration will explain the difference between Gross trial balance and Net trial balance.

(v) Methods of preparing trial balance :
Trial balance can be prepared in any one of the following 2 forms : (i) Vertical or Journal form of Trial Balance and (2) Horizontal or Ledger form of Trial Balance.

(1) Vertical or Journal Form of Trial Balance

Explanation of columns:

• Particulars Column: In this column name of account is written.
• Ledger Folio (L.F.): In this column page number of ledger from where balance is extracted and transferred to trial balance is written.
• Debit balance: In this column accounts having debit balances are written in figures.
• Credit balance: In this column accounts having credit balances are written in figures.
• After writing all the balances in debit column and credit column, amounts written in debit column and amounts written in credit column are totalled separately. If the total of debit column agrees with the total of credit column, it is said that trial balance is tallied.

(2) Horizontal or Ledger Form of Trial Balance:

This trial balance has two main sides viz left-hand side and right-hand side. On the left-hand side debit balances are written down and on the right-hand side, credit balances are noted down.
Each side has three columns viz. name of the accounts, L.F. No. and Amount.

Explanation of columns:
(1) Left-hand side: In the first column names of the accounts having debit balances are written.
In the second column i.e. L.F. column Page No. of Ledger from where balance is extracted and transferred to Trial balance is written. In the third column balance amount of the account is written in figures.

(2) Right-hand side: In the first column names of the accounts having credit balances are written.
In the second column i.e. L.F. column Page No. of Ledger from where balance is transferred is written.
In the third column balance amount of Account is written in figures.

(vi) Utility of Trial Balance :
(1) Trial balance is prepared to know the final balance of every account.

(2) Trial balance is prepared to ascertain arithmetical accuracy of ledger accounts. If total of debit column and total of credit column of the trial balance tallies with each other, then it is proved that, no mistakes of whatsoever nature, has been committed in writing accounts. It is also confirmed that the posting to ledger account in terms of debit and credit amount, carry forward, etc. are accurate.

(3) Trial balance is also useful for preparation of final accounts like Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet. It is also useful to prepare other important financial statements.

(4) To locate accounting errors committed in writing accounts, a trial balance is used. Trial balance will not tally if mistakes or omissions in writing accounts carry forward, etc. are committed.

(5) Trial balance provides a condensed picture of each account opened and operated in the ledger. With the help of trial balance, the position of any account prepared in the ledger can be easily known or found without referring to the ledger.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Organisation of Commerce and Management 11th Notes Chapter 8 Introduction to Management students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Organisation of Commerce and Management 11th Notes Chapter 8 Introduction to Management

Management-
Managerial → Derived from Italian words

• Manus – hand
• agere – to act

Meaning and Definition:

• Mary Parker Follet: “ Management is an art of getting things done through others”.
• Henry Fayol : “ To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control”.
• Fedrick Winslow Taylor : “ Management is knowing exactly what is to be done and seeing that it is done in the best possible manner*’.
• George Terry : “Management is the process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources. ”

Characteristics of Management-

1. Management is Dynamic
2. Management is Inborn Quality
3. Management is a Social Process
4. Management is a Continuous Process
5. Management is Different from Ownership
6. Management is Intangible
7. Management is Situational
8. Management is Goal Oriented
9. Management is Universal
10. Management is a Group Activity

Level of Management-

• Top – Board of Directors, President, Chief Executive Officer, Managing Directors, etc.
• Middle – Functional Managers i.e. Finance Manage, Production Manager, Sales Manager, etc.
• Lower – Superintendents, Supervisors, Foremen, etc

Functions of Top Level Management-

1. Long term objectives
2. Frame the plans and policies
3. Implementation of policies
4. Create various epartments and positions
5. Appoint head, or Incharge, managers to carry out activities
6. Evaluate the performance of various departments.
7. Implementation of policies Functions of Middle Level Management

Functions of Middle Level Management-

1. link between top and lower level management
2. understand plans and policies framed by top management
3. prepare action plan according to the goals to achieve
4. assign duties and responsibilities to the staff
5. to train the staff for carrying out activities
6. appoint lower level staff
7. give timely report to top level management and co-ordinate departmental activities

Functions of Lower Level Management-

1. work as per instructions from middle level management /In charge
2. assign work to the subordinates
3. give instructions to subordinates
4. direct the subordinate (if necessary)
5. solve the Problems and disputes of subordinates.
6. look after repairs and maintenance of machinery, tools and equipments, etc.
7. conduct quality check of the product or service from time to time.

Management as an Art

• “Art is the bringing about a desired result through the application of skills”

Relation Between Art And Management

1. Personal Skills: Solve the resource problems by individual way
2. Creativity: Ability to find new ideas, according to changes in business situation.
3. Regular Practice: Use of different techniques and skills to deal with different people, different situations, different organizations.
4. Personal Abilities: Ability to co-ordinates the activities and guide people.

Management as a Science-

• Science refers to a systematically organized body of knowledge based on proper findings and
  exact principles and is capable of verification.

Relation Between Science And Management

1. Systematic body of Knowledge: Management Principles are based on experiments conducted through management theories and approaches
2. Use of Scientific Method of Observation: Management uses systematic methods of data collections, verification, analysis, interpretation and on this basis taking decisions.
3. Cause and Effect relationship: Management theories are also based on Cause and Effect relationship
4. Universal Applicability of Principles: Principles of Management are universal applied in any condition and situation

Management as a Profession-
A profession may be defined as an occupation backed by specialised knowledge and training and to which entry is regulated by a representative body and duly recognized by the society.

Relation between profession and Management

1. Formal Education: Formal management diploma or degree with training from management from school to work professionally
2. Code of Conduct: Managers have to follow code of conduct based on customs and traditions
3. Expertise: Manager is an expert in practicing his or her knowledge and skill
4. Registration: Managers can take the membership of Chambers of Commerce
5. Restricted Entry: No such compulsion for a manager

Word Meaning:

ancient – in early time; essential – necessary; indispensable – necessary; never ending – endless; creative
– having good imagination; optimum – maximise; techniques – method; exhaustive – complete; character – nature / personality; universal – in general; adaptation – accept tq change; procurement – to obtain; dynamic
– constant change; evaluation – to assess / to judge; static – fixed; forecast – to predict; systematic – in order / well arranged; vision – planning about future goals; utilization – effective use of something; mission – assignment; synchronization – activity of two or more things at same time; evaluate – to assess; purposeful – determined; implementation – to execute; guidance – to instruct / to direct; supervisory – to direct someone; intangible – not physically seen or touched; inherent – built in; continuity – in progression / without a break; context – with reference to topic; innovativeness – new ideas; qualitative – relating with quality; inborn – from birth; backed by – supported; skill – capability; regulated – to control; consistent – stable; practice – to use; organized – arranged in proper way; irrespective – no matter what; findings – to discover; formal education – process of education completed in school and colleges; verification – to find validity of something; stimulate – to encourage; principles – essential; functions – results; theories – judgement / beliefs; approaches – method; conclusions – opinion / judgement; analysis – to investigate / to inspect; interpretation – to review; motivate – to inspire; quantitative – related with numbers.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Biology Notes Chapter 12 Biotechnology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Biology Notes Chapter 12 Biotechnology

Biotechnology-

1. Biotechnology is defined as ‘the development and utilization of biological forms, products or processes for obtaining maximum benefits to man and other forms of life.
2. The term biotechnology was first used by Karl Ereky in 1919 to describe a process for the large-scale production of pigs.
3. According to OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1981) -‘Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and service to the human welfare’.
4. Two phases of the development of biotechnology in terms of its growth :

• Traditional or old biotechnology: Based on fermentation technology using microorganisms as in the preparation of curd, ghee, soma, vinegar, yogurt, cheese making, winemaking, etc.
• Modern or new biotechnology: Based on –
  • The use of rDNA technology, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), microarrays, cell culture, cell fusion, and bioprocessing to develop specific products.
  • Ownership of technology and its socio-political impact.

Principles and Processes of Biotechnology-

1. Two core techniques of modem biotechnology :

(1) Genetic engineering :

(a) Manipulation of genetic material towards the desired end and in a directed and predetermined way, using in vitro process.

(b) Definition of genetic engineering (By Smith): ‘The formation of a new combination of heritable material by the insertion of nucleic acid molecule produced by whatever means outside the cells, into any virus, bacterial plasmid or another vector system so as to allow their incorporation into a host organism in which they do not occur naturally but in which they are capable of continued propagation.

(c) Genetic engineering is also called recombinant DNA technology or gene cloning, as it involves alterations in DNA.

(2) Chemical engineering: Maintaining a sterile environment for manufacturing of useful products like vaccines, antibodies, enzymes, organic acids, vitamins, therapeutics, etc.

2. Different techniques and instruments (devices) for gene cloning/r-DNA technology :

(1) The techniques used in rDNA technology, on the basis of molecular weight: Gel
permeation, osmotic pressure, ion-exchange chromatography, spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, electrophoresis, etc.

(2) Electrophoresis :

• It is used for the separation of charged molecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins, by application of an electric field.
• Different types of electrophoresis: Agarose gel electrophoresis, PAGE, SDA PAGE.

(3) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) :

• It was discovered by Kary Mullis in 1985.
• Uses of PCR : In vitro gene cloning or gene multiplication to produce a billion copies of the desired segment of DNA or RNA, with high accuracy and specificity, in few hours.
• Requirements of PCR : Thermal cycler, DNA containing the desired segment to be amplified, deoxyribonuclueoside triphosphates (dNTPs), excess of two primer molecules, heat stable DNA polymerase and appropriate quantities of Mg⁺⁺ ions.
• Three essential steps : Denaturation, annealing of primer and extension of primer.

3. Biological tools for gene cloning/r-DNA technology :
(1) Enzymes :

• Lysozymes, Nucleases (exonucleases, endonucleases, restriction endonucleases), DNA ligases, DNA polymerases, alkaline phosphatases, reverse transcriptases, etc.
• Nucleases : They cut the phosphodiester bonds of polynucleotide chains.
• Types of nucleases :
  • Exonucleases : They cut nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands.
  • Endonucleases : They cut DNA from within.

Restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes :

• They are the molecular scissors which recognize and cut the phosphodiester back bone of DNA on both strands, at highly specific sequences.
• The 4 to 8 nucleotide long sites recognized by them are called recognition sequences or recognition sites.
• Types of restriction enzyme :
  • Type I : They fuction simultaneously as endonuclease and methylase e.g. EcoKI.
  • Type II : They have separate cleaving and methylation activities e.g. EcoRI, Bgll. They cut DNA at specific sites within the palindrome.
  • Type III : They cut DNA at specific non-palindromic sequences e.g. Hpal, MboII.
• Restriction cutting may result in DNA fragments with blunt ends or cohesive or sticky ends or staggered ends (having short, single stranded projections).

Table : Source and recognition sequences of various restriction enzymes :

(2) Cloning vectors (vehicle DNA) :

• Vectors are DNA molecules that carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside the host cell.
• Examples of vectors : Plasmids (e.g. Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumejaciens, pBR 322, pUC), bacteriophages (e.g. M13, lambda virus), cosmid, phagemids, BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome), YAC (yeast artificial chromosome), transposons, baculoviruses and MACs (mammalian artificial chromosomes).

(3) Competent host: e.g. bacteria like Bacillus Haemophilus, Helicobacter pyroli and E. coli.

Methodology for r-DNA technology-

1. The steps involved in gene cloning :

• Isolation of DNA (gene) from the donor organism.
• Insertion of desired foreign gene into a cloning vector (vehicle DNA).
• Transfer of r-DNA into suitable competent host or cloning organism.
• Selection of the transformed host cell.
• Multiplication of transformed host cell.
• Expression of the gene to obtain desired product.

2. Gene library :

(1) Gene library is a collection of different DNA sequences from an organism where each sequence has been cloned into a vector for ease of purification, storage and analysis.

(2) Types of gene library :

• Genomic library : It is a collection Of clones that represent the complete genome of an organism.
• c-DNA library : It is a collection of clones containing cDNAs inserted into suitable vectors like phages or

Applications of Biotechnology-

1. Healthcare Biotechnology :

(1) It involves unique, targeted and personalized therapeutic and diagnostic solutions for organ transplant, stem cell technology, genetic counselling, forensic medicine, gene probes, genetic fingerprinting and karyotyping.
(2) Human insulin production using r-DNA technology.
(3) Vaccine production :

• Recombinant vaccines, naked DNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines and plant- derived vaccines are found to be most effective against various diseases.
• Modern diagnostic test kits include rickettsial, bacterial and viral vaccines along with radio-labelled biological therapeutics for imaging and analysis.
• Oral Vaccines.

2. Agriculture :

(1) Application of biotechnology in agriculture : Genetically modified organisms, Bt Cotton, pest resistant plants, improvement in the agricultural productivity.
(2) Applications of tissue culture :

• Micropropagation i.e. large-scale propagation of plants in very short durations.
• Storage of germplasm and maintaining clone of plants which produce recalcitrant seeds or highly variable seeds. Recalcitrant seeds are those whose survival and viability gets affected because of dehydration and freezing.

3. Gene therapy :

(1) Gene therapy is the treatment of genetic disorders by replacing, Elitering , or supplementing a gene that is absent or abnormal Eind whose absence or abnormality is responsible for the disease.

(2) Genes can be delivered by three ways, viz. Ex vivo delivery, in vivo delivery and use of virosomes (Liposome + inactivated HIV) and bionic chips.

(3) Forms of gene therapy :

• Germ line gene therapy and
• Somatic cell gene therapy.

4. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) :

(1) Genetically modified orgEinisms are those whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering to create combinations of plant, animal, baetericil and virals genes that do not occur in nature or through traditional crossbreeding methods.

(2) Transgenic Plants : Transgenic plants have been developed for :

• Insect pest resistance : e.g. Bt cotton and Transgenic tobacco.
• Biofortification : Improvement in quantity and quality of vitamin, proteins, oil and iron.

• Tolerance to abiotic stresse and herbicides.
• Resistance to various diseases.
• Improvement in post-harvest characteristics : e.g. Flavr savr tomatoes.

(3) Plants are potential factories or bioreactors for :

• Biochemicals (starch, sugar, lipids and proteins) and biopharmaceuticals (hormones, antibodies, vaccines, drugs or enzymes) isolated from transgenic plants.
• Fine chemicals, perfumes and adhesive compounds.
• Industrial lubricants.
• Biodegradable plastic.
• ‘Renewable’ energy crops to replace fossil fuels.
• ‘Superglue’
• Edible vaccines

(4) Transgenic animals : Transgenic animals are the animals in which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome and such animlas are used in various fields such as medical research, toxicology, molecular biology and in pharmaceutical industry.

• Transgenic mice : Used in cancer research.
• Transgenic fish : Developed for increased cold tolerance and improved growth.

Transgenic farm animals :

(i) The main objectives for developing transgenic animals are to improve quality and quantity of milk, meat and wool, to increase egg production, to develop disease resistant animals, production of low-cost pharmaceuticals and biologicals.

(ii) Transgenic farm animals include transgenic cattle (developed for food production and human therapeutic production), transgenic sheep (developed for production of better quality and quantity of wool and meat. They are also used as bioreactors), transgenic pigs (developed for improved meat production, as bioreactors and they are useful in human transplants – xenotransplantation) and transgenic chicken (developed for having traits like lower levels of fat and cholesterol, high protein containing eggs, in vivo resistance to viral and coccidial diseases, better feed efficiency and better meat quality).

Bioethics-

Ethics deals with the matters related to socially acceptable moral duty, conduct and judgement. It helps to regulate the behaviour of community by certain set of standards.

1. Bioethics helps to study moral vision, decision and policies of human behaviour in relation to biological phenomena or events.
2. It deals with wide range of reactions on new developments like :

• r-DNA technology, cloning, transgenics and gene therapy.
• In vitro fertilization, sperm bank, prenatal genetic selection and eugenics.
• Euthanasia, death, maintaining those who are in comatose state.
• Use of animals causes great sufferings to them.
• Violation of integration of species caused due to transgenosis.
• Transfer of human genes into animals and vice versa.
• Indiscriminate use of biotechnology poses risk to the environment, health and biodiversity.

3. Bioethical concerns related to GMO :

• The effects on non-target organisms,
• Insect resistance crops,
• Gene flow
• The loss of diversity as well as the issue on
• Modification process disrupting the natural process of biological entities.

4. Ethics in biotechnology also includes the general subject of what should and should not be done in using recombinant DNA techniques.

Effects of Biotechnology on the Environment-

1. Herbicide Use and Resistance :

• Unintended hybrid strains of weeds and other plants can develop resistance to these herbicides through cross-pollination, thus negating the potential benefit of the herbicide.
• E.g. Crops of Round Up-ready soybeans have already been implemented into agricultural practices, possibly conferring Round Up resistance to neighbouring plants.

2. Effects on Untargeted Species :

• Bt corn has adverse effects on untargeted species like Monarch butterfly.
• GM plants can also have unintentional effects on neutral or even beneficial species.

Effects of Biotechnology on Human Health-

• Allergies : e.g. Transgenic soyBean containing a gene from the Brazil nut to increase the production of methionine, has caused allergic reactions in those with known nut allergies (Biotech SoyBeans).
• Long-Term Effects : GMO technology is a recent development and its long-term effects on health cannot be anticipated now.
• New Proteins : Proteins which were never ingested before, can have potential effects which are not yet known.
• Food Additives : The use of GMOs may create antibiotic and vaccine-resistant strains of diseases.
• The Indian Government has set up the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) to make decisions regarding the validity of research involving GMOs and addresses the safety of GMOs introduced for public use.

Biopatent and Biopiracy-

Patent is a special right granted to the inventor by the government.
A patent consists of three parts – grant (agreement with the inventor), specification (subject matter of invention) and claims (scope of invention to be protected).

1. Biopatent :

• Biopatent is a biological patent awarded for strains of microorganisms, cell lines, genetically modified strains, DNA sequences, biotechnological processes, product processes, product and product applications.
• Biopatent allows the patent holder to exclude others from making, using, selling or importing protected invention for a limited period of time.
• First biopatent : Genetically engineered bacterium ‘Pseudomonas’ used for clearing oils spills.

2. Biopiracy:

(1) Biopiracy is defined as ‘theft of various natural products and then selling them by getting patent without giving any benefits or compensation back to the host country’.
(2) It is unauthorized misappropriation of any biological resource and indigenous knowledge.
(3) Examples of Biopiracy :

• Patenting of Neem (Azadirachta indica)
• Patenting of Basmati
• Patenting of Haldi (Turmeric)

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Book Keeping & Accountancy Notes 12th Chapter 3 Reconstitution of Partnership (Admission of Partner) students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Accounts Notes Chapter 3 Reconstitution of Partnership (Admission of Partner)

Meaning of Reconstitution of Partnership-

To reconstitute means to form or create it again. Accordingly reconstitution of partnership means to change the earlier relationship and form a new relationship between or among the partners. It refers to the change in the form of partnership due to making of new agreement by the partners. Such reconstitution of partnership takes place on account of admission of a new partner or retirement or death of existing partner.

Different forms of reconstitution : The different forms of reconstitution of partnership are stated
below :

(1) Change in profit-sharing of existing partner : Sometimes due to certain circumstances, existing partners may decide to change their profit and loss ratio. If one of the partners purchases certain profit sharing ratio from another partner, the old partnership deed may get terminated and new agreement comes into force stating the new profit sharing ratio.

(2) Admission of a new partner : If need arises a new person may be admitted into the partnership firm with the consent of all the existing partners. On admission, new partner becomes a new owner of the firm. He is required to bring in his share of capital and goodwill and is entitled to share in future profit. Hence, partnership agreement changes.

(3) Retirement of existing partner : On account of old age, continuing ill health or by sweet will an existing partner may retire from the partnership firm. He is called outgoing partner. Partnership firm is required to pay all his dues on retirement. The profit sharing ratio of continuing partners increases due to reduction in the number of partners.

(4) Death of partner : When a partner dies, he no more remains as partner of a firm. On natural ground he ceases to be partner of a firm. On death of a partner, the profit sharing ratio of continuing partners get changed and old partnership agreement gets terminated.

Admission of a Partner-

As per the Section 31(1) of the Partnership Act, 1932, if need arises, with the consent of all the i
existing partners a new person can be admitted in the partnership firm. Such a partner is called incoming
partner. :

Meaning and Need of admission of a partner:

Meaning : Admission of a partner refers to a process in which a new person is taken into the existing partnership firm as a partner as per certain terms and conditions of partnership deed.
On admission, a new partner brings in cash for his share of capital and goodwill, skill, services, experience, etc. into the existing partnership business and in exchange he gets certain share in future profit of the firm and right in the assets of the firm.

Need : The need of admission of a partner is stated as follows :

• To increase the capital resources of the firm and :
• To secure the advantages of the new person’s skill, experience and business connections to develop efficiency of the business.

Capital brought in by new partner : At the time of admission, new partner is required to bring .
in cash or/and other assets, if any, as his capital, to get rights in the assets and definite share in the future profit of the firm.

When a new partner brings in cash towards his share of capital, the following journal entry is passed :

In case a new partner brings in other assets towards his capital the following journal entry is ;
passed :

New profit sharing ratio : In all cases of admission of a partner, the new partner gets the agreed share in the future of profit whereas all the old partners together get the remaining share. As a result profit sharing ratio of existing (old) partners changes and newly constituted firm is required to calculate new profit sharing ratio for all the partners including new partner. Such new ratio is used by the firm to write off goodwill and to make adjustments in Capital Accounts of the Partners.

New Ratio is calculated by using following formula :
Assume that total profit be 1, The Balance of 1 = (1 – share given to new partner).
New Ratio = (Balance of 1) x Old Ratio.
If sacrifice ratio of old partners is given along with old ratio, the new ratio can be calculated as
→ New Ratio = Old Ratio – Sacrifice Ratio.

Sacrifice ratio : Sacrifice ratio is the ratio in which two or more old partners surrender or give up their shares in the future profit in favour of a new partner of the firm. Sacrifice ratio is calculated by using the following formula :
Sacrifice Ratio = Old Ratio-New Ratio

Meaning of Goodwill-

It is often observed that some business firms are in a position to earn higher profit in comparison to other firms dealing in the similar line of products. This extra earning capacity of a business firm is called goodwill. In other words, Goodwill is the monetary value of the reputation of a firm as measured in terms of its expected future profits. In the words of Lord Macnaghten, Goodwill is “the benefits and advantages of the good name, reputation and connections of the business.

According to Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Goodwill is “an intangible asset
arising from business connection or reputation or trade name of an enterprise. ” Goodwill is built up slowly and gradually by a business concern through great efforts over a long period of time.
The factors on which the value of goodwill depends are : (1) monopoly enjoyed by the business (2) its continued prosperity (3) its reputation, location and connections with leading parties (4) its trade mark, brand name and patents (5) its high profit earning capacity and (6) good and cordial relations with all including customers, employees etc.

Goodwill is an intangible asset because its existence cannot be verified by our senses. It is an asset that cannot be expected to realise or converted into cash unless it is sold along with the business. Goodwill is valued and recorded in the books of accounts by the partnership firm on the following occasions : (1) Sale or purchase of a firm as a going concern (2) Admission of a partner (3) Retirement or death of a partner (4) Change in the profit and loss ratio of the partners.

Methods of Valuation of Goodwill : As prescribed in the syllabus, the value of goodwill as on a ,
particular date is ascertained by using any one of the following methods : ‘
(A) Average Profit Method and (B) Super Profit Method.

(A) Average Profit Method : Under this method, goodwill is valued at certain number of years’ .
purchases of the average profit of the firm. To compute the value of Goodwill as per this ,
method the following formulae are used :

1. Total Profits = Profits of the given number of years-losses, if any.
2. Average Profit = \(\frac{Total Profits of given no. of years}{No. of years given}\)
3. Goodwill = Averge Profit x No. of years’ purchases

Steps to calculate goodwill : Following steps are required to be taken for calculating goodwill :

1. Calculate total profit by giving plus sign to profits and minus sign to losses.
2. Calculate average profit by dividing total profit by given number of years.
3. Calculate the value of goodwill by multiplying average profit by given number of years’ purchases.

(B) Super Profit Method : Under this method, goodwill is valued at certain number of years’ •; purchases of the super profit of the partnership firm. In order to understand the formulae used for computing the value of goodwill under super profit method, the following concepts need to be understood :

(1) Super Profit : Super profit is the profit earned by the business concern over and above the normal profit or return earned on capital exmployed. Super profit is calculated by using the following formula :
Super Profit = Average Profit – Normal Profit.

(Normal Profit or Normal Return on Capital Employed : Normal profit or normal return on capital employed refers to a reasonable profit earned by a business concern to survive in the industry after meeting all its business expenses.
It is ascertained by using the following formula :
Normal Profit or Normal Return on Capital Employed = Capital Employed x Normal Rate of Return.)

(2) Capital Employed : Capital employed is the total amount of capital used by the business concern to run and maintain its business activities. Capital employed is made of fixed assets other than goodwill plus current assets minus current liabilities.

(3) Normal Rate of Return : Normal rate of return is the return or profit normally expected on the capital employed by considering the returns or profit actually earned by other firms in the same industry. This is the average rate of return or profit earned in the industry. Normal rate of return depends on the nature of business and element of risk involved therein.

(4) Goodwill: Super Profit x Number of years’ purchases.

Accounting Treatment of Goodwill: As new partner gets certain share in future profit of the firm from old partners who sacrifice their profit sharing ratio in favour of him, for which they (old partners) must be compensated for such a loss. Therefore, new partner is required to bring in certain amount for goodwill in addition to the amount to be brought in by him towards his share of capital. At the time of admission, goodwill may be given treatment in one of the following two methods, viz.
(A) Premium Method and (B) Valuation Method.

(A) Premium Method : Under premium method following possible cases are considered : Journal entries are shown as follows :

(i) When a new partner brings his share of goodwill in cash which is retained in the business :

(ii) When a new partner brings Goodwill In cash but it is withdrawn by the old partners:

(iii) When a new partner pays amount of Goodwill to old partners privately :
No accounting entry is to be passed in the books of the partnership firm as amount of goodwill is paid privately by a new partner to old partners, business firm as such is not at all benefited and therefore, there is no necessity of recording any entry for goodwill in the books of a partnership firm.

(B) Valuation Method : if the new partner does not bring in his share of goodwill in cash, a new Goodwill A/c may be opened and it may be treated in the following manner :

(i) If goodwill does not appear in the books of accounts :

(ii) If goodwill already appears In the books of accounts:

(a) If on revaluation, the revised value of goodwill Is found to be lower than Its existing value which already appears In the books : (Entry is to be passcd only for difference in the value of goodwill)

(b) If on revaluation, the revised value of goodwill is found to be greater than Its existing value which already appears in the books : (Entry is to be passed only for difference In the value of goodwill)

Revaluation of Assets and Liabilities : Just before the admission of a new partner, it is usual practice to revalue the assets and liabilities of the existing firm. The profit or loss which arises due to changes in their values is shared by the old partners alone. To record such changes in the values of assets and liabilities, a separate account is opened and operated. Such an account is called “Profit and Loss Adjustment A/c” or “Revaluation A/c”. It is a nominal account showing the expenses or losses on the debit side and incomes or gains on the credit side.

A decrease in the value of the assets and an increase in the amount of the liabilities are shown on the debit side of this account, while an increase in the assets or a decrease in the liabilities are shown on the credit side of this account. So also this account is debited for recording an outstanding expense and creating a provision for bad and doubtful debts and credited for recording incomes receivables, prepaid expenses and creating a provision for discount on creditors. Any balance of this account is then transferred to old partners’ capital/current accounts in their old profit sharing ratio.

Debit balance of Profit and Loss Adjustment A/c or Revaluation A/c indicates loss incurred on revaluation of assets and liabilities, while credit balance of this account shows profit earned on revaluation of assets and liabilities.

(a) Pro Forma journal entries on revaluation of assets and liabilities are given below :

(b) Pro Forma Profit and Loss Adjustment Account/Revaluation Account :

Adjustment of Accumulated Profits and Losses:
(1) Different type of Reserve Funds : Every year part of the profit, kept aside in a separate account by the partners to meet the loss, if any that may arise due to unforeseen contingencies like flood, fire, theft, sudden fall in prices of firm’s products, etc. is called as General Reserve. The credit balance in General Reserve, Reserve Fund, Workmen’s Compensation Fund, Investment Fluctuation Fund, Joint Policy Reserve, etc., are created out of past profit, the balance of the those reserves entirely belong to old partners and therefore new partner has no right to get any share in those reserves. Hence on admission of a new partner, entire balance in the above mentioned reserves is required to be transferred to old partners’ capital accounts or current accounts in their old profit sharing ratio. The following journal entry is required to be passed for transfer of balance in various reserves :

(2) Accumulated Profit/Loss : Every year part of the profit, which remains undistributed among the old partners, is carried forward to next year. Such undistributed profit accumulated over many years is shown in the Balance Sheet on liabilities side under the heading “Profit and Loss A/c”. Similarly, part of the losses unadjusted among the partners is carried forward to next year. Such unadjusted losses if any, accumulated over many years are shown on the Assets side of the Balance Sheet under the heading “Profit and Loss A/c”. At the time of admission of a new partner, entire balance of such accumulated profits or losses is transferred to old partners’ capital/current accounts in their old profit sharing ratio. The following entries are required to be passed for transfer of accumulated profit/losses :
(a) Transfer of accumulated profit:

(b) Transfer of accumulated loss :

Adjustment of Capitals: At any time when the partners so desire (and especially after admission of a new partner), they may make their capitals proportionate to their new profit ratio either through their Current or Loan A/cs or by actually bringing in or withdrawing cash.

The capital accounts of all the partners are usually adjusted by taking new partner’s capital as the base and then adjust the capital of other partners. Adjusted new capital balance of each old partner is then compared with his actual capital balance to find out deficit or surplus of capital. Ultimately, the deficit or surplus of capital of partners is adjusted either through partners’ current account or his loan account or through cash.
The following journal entries are passed for adjustment of partners’ capitals as mentioned above :

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Biology Notes Chapter 6 Plant Water Relation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Biology Notes Chapter 6 Plant Water Relation

Introduction-

1. Types of substances required by the plant from its surroundings

• Water
• Minerals
• Nutrients
• Food (for parasites)
• Gases from the atmosphere : (A) O₂ for respiration (B) CO₂ for photosynthesis

2. Water is absolutely necessary for all vital activities. Hence referred to as elixir of life.
3. Role of water :

• Major constituent of protoplasm (90-95%)
• Helps in maintaining the turgidity of cells and their shape.
• It is a transporting medium.
• Water affects productivity of plants.

Properties of water-

1. Important properties of water.

• Liquid form at room temperature.
• Best solvent for various solutes.
• Inert inorganic compound.
• Neutral pH (i.e. pH = 7) of pure water.
• High specific heat.
• High heat of vaporization.
• High heat of fusion.

2. Due to these properties water is best transporting medium, best medium for biochemical reactions and acts as a thermal buffer.
3. Hydrogen bonding occurs in liquid water which is mainly responsible for these properties.
4. Good adhesive and cohesive forces exist in water molecule.
5. Owing to high surface tension and these forces, it can rise in capillaries.
6. Water is a molecule that connects or is a link between physical factors and biological processes.

Water absorbing organ-

1. Root system – Chief organ of water and mineral absorption.
2. Terrestrial plants absorb liquid water from soil with root hairs while epiphytes like orchids, have special hygroscopic tissue velamen that absorbs water vapour from atmosphere.
3. Regions of root – four zones.
Root cap is situated at tip behind it is

• zone of meristematic region
• zone of elongation
• zone of absorption or root hair zone and
• zone of maturation.

4. In zone of absorption, thin, delicate, unicellular hair like extensions i.e. root hairs develop from epidermal cells.
5. Structure of root hair : It is cytoplasmic extension, tube like, colourless, unbranched and short lived (ephemeral) structure.
6. Root hair has large central vacuole, thin cytoplasm, plasma membrane and double layered wall of pectin and cellulose.
7. Freely permeable cell wall while selectively permeable plasma membrane.

Water available to roots for absorption-

1. Rhizosphere : Microenvironment surrounding the root, constitutes rhizosphere from which plants absorb water.
2. Soil is the main source of water for plants.
3. Water present in soil is in following forms namely :

• Gravitational water percolated deep in soil due to gravity.
• Hygroscopic water held tightly around soil particles, adsorbed or adhered water on fine particles.
• Combined water present as hydrated oxides of silicon, aluminium, etc.
• Capillary water present in the fine spaces or capillaries between soil particles.

4. Plants readily absorb capillary water from soil.

Absorption of water by roots from soil-

When water is absorbed by plant, all the three physical processes occur simultaneously at root hair.

1. Imbibition :

• Swelling up of hydrophilic colloidal substances.
• Water is adsorbed on the surface.
• Imbibant : Substance that adsorbs.
• Imbibate : Substance that gets imbibed.
• In root hair double layered cell wall of cellulose and pectin is imbibant.
• Water is tightly adsorbed on the surface till the equilibrium is reached.

2. Diffusion :

• Movement of ions/atoms/molecules of a substance from region of high concentration to that of their low concentration.
• Movement results due to kinetic energy.
• It takes place till equilibrium is reached.
• In root cell, diffusion occurs through freely permeable cell wall.
• Diffusion pressure created is directly proportional to number of diffusion particles.
• Pure water has more diffusion pressure (D.E) than solvent in solution.
  Diffusion results in diffusion pressure. D.ED. can be considered as thirst of cell, capacity which absorbs water from surrounding of adjacent cell.
• D.ED. (Diffusion Fressure Deficit = S.E (Suction Fressure)
• Difference in D.E of pure solvent (i.e. water) and solvent in solution is termed D.ED.
• D.ED. is capacity to absorb water from surrounding.
• Cell sap has less D.E than water around cell wall. Thus, water diffuses inside.
• It is significant in absorption of water and minerals, transport of food, exchange of gases and conduction of water upwards against gravity.

3. Osmosis :

•  A process by which water actually enters root hair (cell interior).
• Special type of diffusion.
• Involves movement of solvent through a semipermeable membrane.
• Cell sap inside the cell is concentrated (minerals, sugars) while solution outside cell is weaker. Hence solvent (water) from outside enters the cell passing through semipermeable plasma membrane.
• In root cell, at interphase of cell wall and plasma membrane, water enters by osmosis.
• Type of solutions based on concentration
  
• Two types of osmosis
  
• Turgor pressure (T.P.) : Pressure exerted by turgid cell sap on cell membrane and cell wall.
• Fully turgid cell has D.ED. = 0 (zero)
• Wall pressure (W.P.) : Cell wall exerts pressure on inner cell sap i.e. counterpressure. Hence T.P = W.P but it is in opposite direction.
• Osmotic pressure (O.P.) : Pressure exerted due to osmosis so as to stop entry of water (solvent) inside.
  • Pressure of solution in opposite direction.
  • To check entry of water (solvent molecules) inside cell.
• D.RD. (thirst of cell) demand or ability to gain water by cell = O.P – T.P and T.P = W.P
  ∴ D.ED. = O.P – W.P (Osmotic pressure minus wall pressure)
• In flaccid cell T.P is 0 (zero) . .D.RD. = O.E In turgid cell D.PD. is 0 (zero) ..T.R = O.R

Facilitated diffusion :

• Passive absorption of solutes (no expenditure of energy)
• Takes place with the help of carriers (special proteins – porins)
• Diffusion through cell membrane
• Lipid soluble components can easily pass but hydrophilic components need carrier.
• Requirement of concentration gradient for diffusion.

Membrane proteins – aquaporins and ion channels are sites of facilitated diffusion.

Water potential ( Ψ )-

• Free energy is needed to do the work and for movement of water, i.e. osmosis )
• Chemical potential : Free energy per molecule in a chemical system.
  Water potential : It is chemical potential of water – Unit bars / pascal (pa) / atmosphere D.RD. is now termed as water potential.
• Water potential of protoplasm is opposite in sign but equal to D.RD. i.e. negative value.
• Pure water has water potential zero. When some solute is added there is decrease in water potential (t//) i.e. negative.
• Flow of water is from less negative potential to more negative potential, i.e. from higher water potential to lower.
• In adjacent cells, plasmodesmata connections are concerned with movement of water.

Factors affecting water absorption :

• Types of water-presence of capillary water.
• Soil temperature-favourable range 20 to 30°C.
• Concentration of solutes in soil water – High solute concentration reduces rate of absorption.
• Soil aeration : If soil aeration is less then there is absorption.
• Rate of transpiration : With increase in transpiration, there is increase in absorption of water.

Plasmolysis-

1. Exosmosis that occurs in living cells upon placing in hypertonic (concentrated) solution is termed plasmolysis.

• Shrinkage of protoplasm
• Separation from cell wall forms a gap between cell wall
• Flaccid nature due to removal of water.

2. Turgor pressure (T.R) is zero in plasmolysed cell.
3. Deplasmolysis : When flaccid cell is kept in hypotonic solution endoosmosis takes place and thus it becomes turgid.
4. In fully turgid cell T.R = O.P and D.RD. is zero, (no absorption of water by cell)

Path of water across the root (i.e. from epiblema up to xylem in the stelar region)-

1. Root hair cell : Absorption of water takes place from rhizosphere by process of imbibition then diffusion and finally osmosis.

2. In turgid cells (root hair) due to absorption of water → Increased turgor pressure (T.P) and lowered D.PD. →adjacent cell (Cortical cell) → more D.PD. more osmotic pressure (O.R) → adjacent cell will take water from turgid root ha.i → root hair cell thus becomes flaccid → absorb water from soil.

3. A gradient of D.PD. or suction pressure (S.R) is formed from root epidermis till the region of cortical cells.

4. Movement of water is from root hair → epidermis → loosely arranged cortical cell → passage cells of endodermis → pericycle → protoxylem

5. Due to continuous absorption of water hydrostatic pressure is developed, i.e. root pressure → Helps in transfer and conduction further in xylem of root.

6. The movement of water from root hair to xylem takes place along two different pathways, viz. apoplast pathway and symplast pathway.

7. Pathway for water across roots:

8. Additional apoplast pathway :

• Direct pathway leading to xylem.
• Secondary roots originate at pericycle inside endodermis.
• Bypass endodermis having Casparian strip. Hence allow direct entry in vascular system.

9. In normal apoplast pathway, suberised layer forces shift to symplast in order to enter xylem.

10. Symplast pathway is transmembrane pathway through plasmodesmatal connections in living cells of cortex. The plasmodesmata interconnect the cytoplasm of cells forming cytoplasmic network called symplast.

Learn this as well :

• Vacuoles in the root cells are interconnected to form intercellular connections.
• Intervacuolar connections are formed between the cells.
• Cytoplasmic connections are towards the periphery of cell.
• Tonoplast, the membrane of vacuole is differentially permeable membrane which allows the passage of certain solutes but not all along with solvent.

Mechanism of absorption of water-

Translocation of water-

1. Ascent of sap : Transport of water along with dissolved minerals from root to aerial part against gravity is called translocation or ascent of sap.
2. Ascent of sap occurs through lumen of xylem tracheids and vessels. Physical forces and activity of living cells is required for ascent of sap. Complex tissue xylem as a path of water is proved by ringing experiment.
3. Root pressure theory (Vital theory) by J. Pristley :

• Living cells of root are responsible for translocation of water.
• Xylem sap exuding out from cut end of stem above the soil indicates existence of root pressure.
• As water is absorbed by root hair constantly and continuously, hydrostatic pressure is set in root cortical cells.
• Owing to this root pressure, water with dissolved minerals is pushed into xylem and also conducted upwards.
• Root pressure is an osmotic phenomenon, develops due to absorption of water.
• Oxygen, moisture, temperature and salt content of soil affect root pressure, Root pressure of +1 to +2 bars is sufficient to carry water upwards to 10 to 20 metres.

Objection to this theory :

• Not applicable to tall plants.
• Ascent of sap occurs even if root system is absent.
• Some tall plants have zero root pressure (Gymnosperms).
• Root pressure is absent in actively transpiring plants.
• Xylem sap shows negative hydrostatic pressure as it is under tension in normal condition.

4. Capillarity theory (Physical force theory) By Bohem :

• Physical forces and dead cells (xylem with lignified wall) are responsible for translocation.
• Water is raised to certain level due to capillarity.
• Capillarity is due to surface tension, cohesive and adhesive forces of water.
• Water conducting elements have lignified walls and are with lumen (xylem vessels and tracheids)
• Combined cohesive forces of water and adhesive forces of water with xylem wall form continuous water column.
• Owing to capillarity, water is conducted upwards against gravity.

Objection to capillarity theory :

• Continuous capillary tube is essential but tracheids have thickened, tapering closed end walls.
• Lower end of capillary tube not in direct contact with soil water.
• Tall trees show wide lumen in xylem vessels. Narrower the capillary tube, higher level of water column is raised.

5. Cohesion – Tension theory (Transpiration pull theory) By Dixon and Joly :

• Widely accepted theory of ascent of sap.
• Based on cohesion and adhesion with transpiration pull developed.
• Strong force of attraction of water molecules : Cohesive force
• Strong force of attraction of water molecules and lignified walls of xylem : Adhesive force
• Water loss is in the form of water vapour, mainly through stomata is transpiration.
• Owing to combined action of cohesive and adhesive forces, a continuous water column is maintained through xylem.
• Transpiration pull developed due to water loss in leaf vessels is transmitted downwards towards root.
• Water lost from stomata causes increased D.RD. of mesophyll cells which in turn takes water from xylem of leaf.
• A gradient of suction pressure or D.ED. is set in, due to transpiration, which causes tension or pull. Owing to this, water column is pulled upwards through xylem.
• It is passive pull of water against gravity which results in ascent of sap.

Objections to transpiration pull theory :

• Formation of gas bubbles due to temperature fluctuations may not keep water column continuous.
• Vessels as tabular structure are much evolved and efficient in conduction but this theory assumes trachieds are more efficient.
• If transpiration is checked due to some artificial means like application of Vaseline, then also ascent of sap occurs, (clogging of stomata due to application of Vaseline)
• Ascent of sap occurs in plants which are deciduous, (leaf fall)

Transport of mineral ions-

• Minerals are elements which play an important role in vital processes in metabolism. Thus they are essential elements for plants.
• Elements required in large amount, Macro elements : e.g. N, P C, H, O, etc.
• Elements are required in small amount, Micro elements : e.g. B, Cu, Mn, Co, etc.
• Soil is a chief source of minerals and they are absorbed in dissolved (ionic) form through root system.
• Minerals are absorbed by plants from their surrounding environment (atmosphere – C, H, O) and soil (inorganic materials).
• Absorption of minerals is independent of that of water.
• Minerals are transported with ascent of sap. Hence root is source and they get lodged at the required organ.
• Unloading of the transported material is by diffusion from veins and cells uptake them.
• Minerals can be remobilized inside plant body from older leaves to young leaves, e.g. R S, N, K, etc. But those parts of structural framework are not disturbed, e.g. Ca.
• Nitrogen in inorganic ion form and amino acids, amides in organic form are transported through xylem.
• Some exchange of material takes place between xylem and phloem.

Transport of food-

• Food is synthesised in chloroplast containing cells.
• Part of plant where food is synthesised is source (leaf) and where it is utilized is sink e.g. root.
• Translocation of food occurs from source to sink through phloem. The movement or transport of food from one part to other part is called translocation of food.
• Sieve tubes (phloem) and vessels (xylem) are ideal for vertical or longitudinal transport. Sieve tubes for downward transport.
• The lateral or horizontal translocation occurs through medullary rays (parenchyma) from phloem to pith or cortex.
• Food is translocated in soluble form sucrose along concentration gradient set from sink.
• Vertical translocation – (longitudinal transport)
  From leaves i.e. source to sink (root) in downward direction or growing point (stem) and seed germination, corm, bulbil germination in upward manner.
• Lateral translocation – occurs in root and stem.
  • Radial translocation from phloem to pith.
  • Tangential translocation from phloem to cortex.

• Phloem transport is bidirectional. Phloem sap has sucrose, and water with other sugar, amino acids and hormones.
• Mechanism of sugar transport through phloem – Mass Flow hypothesis or Munch’s Pressure flow theory is – most widely accepted concept.
• Other theories are diffusion, activated diffusion, electro osmosis, protoplasmic streaming.
• Ernst Munch theory : Glucose synthesised in photosynthesis which increases osmotic concentration of photosynthetic cell → Endo osmosis → water absorbed from adjacent cells and xylem → Turgidity of cell →Increased turgor pressure → sugar from photosynthetic cell forced into sieve tube → This is vein loading.
• Root cell (sink) → utilization of sugar → polymerisation of sugar to starch → osmotic concentration lowered. Exosmosis → hence water lost to adjacent cells → decrease in turgidity → Turgor pressure lowered → Turgor pressure gradient is set → Translocation of food passively along concentration gradient → This is vein unloading.
• Sugar is used at the sink or stored and excess water transported to xylem.

Objections of theory –

• Bidirectional flow is not explained.
• Pressure flow is a physical process.

Transpiration-

• From the constant absorption of water 5% is utilized and 95% surplus water is lost through aerial parts in the form of mainly water vapour.
• Guttation : Loss of water in liquid form (1%), occurs from water stomata or hydathode.
• Transpiration : Water lost in the form of water vapour mainly foliar transpiration.
• Types of Transpiration
  

Structure of stomatal apparatus-

• Stomatal apparatus has guard cells, stoma and accessory cells.
  
• The elliptical pores (opening – stoma) are bounded by two guard cells, either kidney shaped or dumbbell shaped cells.
• Guard cells are modified epidermal cells, nucleated cells with uneven thick wall – Inner wall thick and inelastic, outer wall is thin and elastic, with chloroplasts.
• Accessory cells/Subsidiary cells –
  Specialized epidermal cells that surround guard cells. They are reservoir of K⁺ ions.
• Opening and closing of stomata Is controlled by turgidity of guard cells.
• During daytime → Thrgld guard cells due to endoosmosls → ExertIon of T.P on outer thin wall → elastic wall stretch out → Thick walls pulled apart → stoma opens.
• During night-time → flaccid guard cells due to exosmosis → outer elastic wall relaxes → Inner thick walls pushed → stoma closes.
• Diurnal changes In osmotic potential are responsible for flaccidity and turgidity of guard cells.
• As per starch-sugar hypothesis → DurIng day time starch gets converted to sugar by enzyme phosphorylase → Increase osmotic potential → entry of water
  Reverse reaction during night → stoma close

As per proton pump theory — Transport of H⁺ and K⁺ ions

• During daytime – starch converted to malic acid → dissociation into malate and protons (H⁺) → H⁺ in subsidiary cells → K⁺ ions from subsidiary cells to guard cells → open stomata Potassium malate → Increase osmotic potential → endoosmosis (turgidity)
• At night → uptake of K⁺ and Cl^– ions is checked by abscissic acid – change In permeability, osmotic potential → Hypotonic guard cells → exosmosis → flaccid → stoma close

Advantages of Transpiration:

• Removal of excess water
• Helps In absorption of water
• Cooling effect
• Helps in gaseous exchange
• Maintains turgor of cells
• Ascent of sap

Disadvantage – Excessive transpiration causes wilting injury and that may lead to death of plant.

Transpiration : A necessary evil – (By Curtis)

• During daytime stomata remain open thus help in gaseous exchange – for respiration and photosynthesis
• Productivity is adversely affected if stomata remain closed
• When stomata are open transpiration cannot be avoided.

Know the scientists :
Scientists — Their theories/discoveries

1. B.S. Meyer – Coined the term Diffusion Pressure Deficit D.RD.
2. Atkins and – Osmotic absorption Pristley theory
3. Kramer and – Non-Osmotic absorption Thimann theory
4. J. Pristley – Root pressure theory
5. Bohem – Capillarity theory
6. Dixon and Joly – Cohesion Tension theory
7. Munch – Pressure flow theory
8. Steward – Starch-sugar interconversion theory
9. Levitt – Proton transport theory
10. Curtis – Transpiration as ‘a necessary evil’
11. S. Hales – Term root pressure

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 14 Biomolecules students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 14 Biomolecules

Biomolecules: Biomolecules are lifeless molecules that combine in a specific manner to produce life or control biological reactions. Examples: They are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids. They play
an important role in the functions of organisms.

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds that can be hydrolyzed to polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones.

Classification of Carbohydrates:

Preparation of glucose: Glucose is prepared either from cane sugar or from starch.

Reactions:

Glucose can be represented by Fischer projection formulae and cyclic structure by Haworth projection formulae. Fructose is ketohexose and is made by the isomerization of glucose. It is laevorotatory and belongs to the D series. Fructose can be represented by Fischer projection formulae and cyclic structure by Haworth projection formulae. Disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, cellobiose, lactose, etc. Polysaccharides are starch, cellulose, glycogen, etc.

Proteins: Proteins are naturally occurring polymeric nitrogenous organic compounds containing 16% nitrogen and peptide linkages. Proteins are classified into fibrous proteins (keratin, hair, skin, nails) and globular proteins (hemoglobin, thyroglobulin). The structure of a protein can be studied at different levels called primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Proteins on hydrolysis give a mixture of α-amino acids .
Amino acids are classified into three types-basic, acidic, and neutral amino acids.
Peptide linkage (-CONH) in an amide formed between -COOH and -NH₂ group by elimination of water molecule.

Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts for various chemical reactions in living organisms. Enzymes are required in small quantities. They act as catalysts and reduce the activation energy for a particular reaction. In many industrial processes, specific reactions are carried with the use of enzymes extracted from organisms.

Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids are esters of phosphoric acid with sugar. They control the synthesis of proteins and are also responsible for storing the genetic information of living organisms and passing the information from one generation to another.
Chromosomes contain two types of nucleic acids: Ribonucleic acid RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid DNA Nucleoside: A base-sugar unit
Nucleotide: A base-sugar-phosphoric acid unit. Nucleotides are monophosphates of nucleosides.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Bookkeeping and Accountancy 11th Notes Chapter 2 Meaning and Fundamentals of Double Entry Book-Keeping students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 11th Accounts Notes Chapter 2 Meaning and Fundamentals of Double Entry Book-Keeping

Meaning and Definition of Double Entry Book-Keeping System-

Meaning:

The Double Entry Book keeping system is scientific, perfect and a complete method of recording business information in the books of accounts. Usually, in every business transaction, we find two accounts, out of which one account is given debit effect and other account is given credit effect. In this system for every debit, there is a corresponding credit and in money term all debits are equal to all credits. If any thing comes into business, an account of that item is to be debited and if any thing goes out from business, an account of that item is to be credited in the books of account, e.g. Ashok purchases goods worth ₹ 5,000 from Kishor by paying cash. Here, Ashok gets goods of ₹ 5,000 and parts with cash of ₹ 5,000. In the books of Ashok, Goods A/c. will be given debit effect to extent of ₹ 5,000 and Cash A/c will be given credit effect to extent of ₹ 5,000. Thus, every business transaction is split up into two parts or two aspects, i.e. debit aspect and credit aspect. Debit effect is posted to the debit side of one Ledger A/c. and credit effect is recorded on the credit side of the other Ledger A/c.

It means every business transaction is recorded in two different accounts at two different places. In this manner, in double entry book keeping system, completed business transactions are first recorded in journal and then in ledgers. At the end of the accounting year, all ledger accounts are closed and balanced. The balance shown by each ledger account is then recorded on a separate sheet in order of debit and credit. This is known as trial balance. When this process is over, the debit column and credit column of trial balance are totalled. The total of debit side always agrees or equals with the total of credit side. It means every debit is given equivalent credit under the double entry book-keeping system.

Thus, double entry book-keeping system seeks to record every business transaction in money or money’s worth in its double aspects viz. debit and credit.

Definition of Double Entry Book Keeping System:

(1) J. R. Batliboi : “Every business transaction has a two fold effect and that it affects two accounts in opposite directions and if a complete record is to be made of each such transaction it would been necessary to debit one account and credit another account. It is this recording of two fold effect of every transaction that has given rise to term Double Entry. ”

(2) William Pickles : “The Double Entry System seeks to record every transaction in Money or Money’s worth in its double aspect – the receipt of a benefit by one account and the surrender of a like benefit by another account, the former entry being to the debit of the account receiving and the later to the credit of the account surrendering.’’

Methods of Recording Accounting Information-

Book keeping system is classified as (i) Indian system of recording accounting information and (ii) English system of recording accounting information.

(i) Indian System : Traditional method of recording and keeping the records of accounts in any one of Indian languages like Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati, Urdu, etc. is called the Indian accounting system. It is also called Mahajani / Deshi Nama system. Under this system, transactions are recorded in long books known as Kird or Bahi Khata and it is not based on Double Entry book-keeping system. This system does not have scientific base. This system is still used in India by small business organisations.

(ii) English System: When business informations are recorded in the books of accounts in English language as per modern (advanced) method, it is called. English accounting system. Now-a-days, English accounting system is more advanced and popular and universally followed all over the world. In India, in many large scale business organisations, English system of recording accounting is followed. English accounting system is sub classified as (i) Single entry book-keeping system and (ii) Double entry book-keeping system.

Single Entry Book-Keeping System :

A book-keeping system in which only one aspect of business transaction is considered and systematically recorded in the books of accounts and other aspect is completely ignored is called single entry book-keeping system. Under this system of book keeping only Cash Book and personal accounts are prepared and maintained. It is incomplete and unscientific method of book-keeping. It cannot provide accurate information about the profitability and financial position of the business. It has several drawbacks and defects. It is not as popular as double entry book-keeping system. It is rarely used in the modern business world. This system is suitable for small business organisations.

Double Entry Book-Keeping System :
A book-keeping system in which double or two fold effects of each transaction is recorded systematically is called double entry book-keeping system. In this system one account is debited and another account is credited with equal amount. It is scientific method of recording all business transactions in the books of accounts.

The main principles of double entry system are stated as follows :

In every business transaction minimum two interested parties are involved.
Every business transaction has minimum two aspects or effects viz. one receiving benefit and another giving benefit.
Two aspects or effects of every business transaction are recorded in the books of accounts.
In monetary term every debit has equal credit. It means every debit has corresponding credit of equal amount. Two fold effects of every business transaction are recorded by debiting one account and crediting another account.

Advantages of Double Entry Book – Keeping System-

• Recording double aspects of each transaction in the books of accounts, ensures an arithmetical accuracy of accounts.
• This system is helpful to detect, prevent and reduce the frauds.
• If at all any mistake occurs, it can be easily detected and rectified.
• Exact amount due to us from customers/debtors and other parties, and exact amount payable to creditors/ suppliers by us can be known easily from the records maintained as per this system.
• This accounting system keeps complete, accurate and perfect records of business transactions.
• This accounting system is suitable for all types of business organisations i.e. small scale, medium scale and large scale, public and private business organisations, etc.
• This accounting system is helpful to prepare trial balance and final accounts of the business at the end of the accounting year.
• With the help of this system income statements of the current year can be compared with the income statements of previous years and on the basis of that comparison a businessman gets information about the variations in incomes and expenses. To control expenses, a businessman can adopt different measures.
• As all accounts are prepared independently under this accounting system, item wise detail information can be known easily, e.g. value of assets, amount of expenses, amount payable to other parties, etc.

Conventional System of Accounting-

Conventional system of accounting is an old and traditional method of recording business transactions in the books of accounts. Indian accounting system is one of the finest example of conventional system of accounting. Under this system accounting information are recorded in any one of the Indian languages such as Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Marwadi, Urdu, etc.

It is a system of accounting in which businessman or accountant (in local language called ‘munimjV) prepares conventional cash book, Journal i.e. Rojmel and Ledger i.e. Khatavahi to record business transactions. Conventional system of accounting is more suitable and useful for those businessmen whose turnover is small and number of business activities is limited. Even today this accounting system is adopted by many professionals and businessmen.
Left hand side of every ledger account is called Debit i.e. ‘Jama’ and right hand side is called Credit i.e. ‘Udhar’ or ‘Nave’. This system suffers from many drawbacks. It is incomplete system of maintaining accounting records. It is not recognised by law as an accounting system.

Classifications of Accounts-

(i) Account:
(A) Meaning: An account is a list of business transactions falling under the same description for a given period of time. A systematic and summarised record of business transactions with respect to person, property, loss, gain, income or expense is known as account. An account is generally prepared for one complete year. The word ‘Account’ in abbreviation can be written as ‘A/c.’ Accounts are prepared and maintained in the Ledger. Separate Ledger sheet or page is used for one specific account.

According to J. R. Batliboi, “An account is summarised record of transactions affecting one person, one kind of property or one class of gain or loss. ”
An account is divided into two equal parts, viz. left hand side called debit side and right hand side called credit side.

(B) Specimen of an account: The specimen form of an account is given below:

An account is divided into two equal parts by drawing a double line in middle of the account (i.e. T form). The left hand side is called debit side (Debit record) and right hand side is called credit side (Credit record).

(ii) Classification of Accounts :

Classification of accounts means dividing or grouping different accounts into certain well defined classes with certain objectives.
Accounts are classified into two main groups as (i) Personal Account, and (ii) Impersonal Account.

(1) Personal A/c : Account of person or account relating to person with whom a business keeps dealing is called Personal A/c. Therefore, an account of an individual, partnership firm, company, club, institution, local authority, association, State Government and Central Government with which business keeps dealings is called a personal account. From the view point of law, persons are classified as (a) natural or living persons,(b) legal or artificial persons and (c) Representative Persons. The term natural person implies individuals human beings, e.g. Ashok’s A/c, Kishor’s A/c etc. A legal person does not have life, body and soul, but the law recognises it as a person because all business transactions are done in its name.

For instance Bank of India’s A/c is a personal account as Bank of India is a financial institution which deals in money. It is a legal person. Under the title of legal person the following institutions and legal bodies are included, viz. partnership firm, joint stock company, association, clubs, legal, medical, financial, educational and charitable institutions, gram panchayat, district body, State Government, Central Government, etc. Account of Debtor, Account of Creditor, Bank A/c, College’s A/c, Hospital’s A/c, Club’s A/c and Partnership Firm A/c. are called Personal A/cs.

Representative Personal Account represents an account of a group of certain persons with whom business keeps dealings e.g. Sundry Debtors A/c, Prepaid Insurance A/c, Outstanding Salaries A/c , etc.

(2) Impersonal Account : All accounts other than personal accounts are known as impersonal accounts. In other words, all accounts which are not personal accounts are grouped under impersonal account. For instance Cash A/c, Rent A/c, Wages A/c and Furniture A/c. are impersonal accounts. Impersonal accounts are classified as (a) Real A/c. and (b) Nominal A/c.

(a) Real A/c : An account of tangible as well as intangible property or any thing owned and possessed by a business is called Real A/c. In other words Real A/c is that account which relates to tangible as well.as intangible assets, objects, etc. of the business. For example Cash A/c, Furniture A/c, Land and Building A/c, Goods A/C, Goodwill A/c, Patent A/c, Plant and Machinery A/c. are called Real A/c. as they relate to the property of the business. Real A/c is further divided into Tangible Real A/c and Intangible Real , A/c.
Tangible Real assets are those which can be seen, touched, felt and measured. It has physical existence. Accounts of Tangible assets are called Tangible Real A/c. E.g. Cash A/c, Goods A/c etc. Intangible Real assets are those which cannot be seen or touched, but it can be measured in terms of money. Accounts of intangible assets are called Intangible Real A/c., e.g. Goodwill A/c, Patent A/c, Trademark A/c, Copy right A/c etc.

(b) Nominal Account: An account relating to business expense, income, gain and loss is called Nominal account. In other words, an account of business expense, business income, business loss or business gain is called Nominal A/c. For instance Rent A/c. is a Nominal A/c, as rent is an expense if it is paid by business and it is an income if it is received by business. Similarly, Salaries A/c, Interest A/c, CQmmission A/c, Discount A/c., etc are Nominal A/c. Nominal A/c is also called as Fictitious A/c. In the ledger, separate account is prepared and maintained for each head of business expenses, losses, incomes and gains. Nominal A/c represents business incomes, gains, expenses and losses. Thus, a classification of accounts is shown in summarised form as below.

(iii)List of Legal Persons Are Given Below:

Legal Persons:

• Partnership Firm
• Hindu Undivided Family
• joint Stock Company (a) Private Limited Company, (b) Public Limited Company,
• Co-operative Societies,
• Institutions (a) Financial Institutions, (b) Educational Institutions, (c) Medical Institutions, (d) Legal Institutions, (e) Charitable or Welfare Institutions,
• Associations
• Clubs,
• Government Authorities (a) Local-grampanchayat, different kinds of district authorities or bodies, Municipalities (b) State Government, (c) Central Government (d) Government Department.

(iv) Illustrations on Different types of Accounts :

• Anand Agrawal’s A/c.: Mr. Anand Agrawal with whom business deals is a living person. Hence, Mr. Anand Agrawal’s A/c is a Personal A/c..
• Audit Fees A/c.: Audit means to check or to verify an account. The qualified person who does this work of checking is called the auditor. Fees charged by the auditor is called as audit fees. It is an income for auditor and expense for the business. It is a Nominal A/c.
• Bad Debts A/c.: ‘Bad debts’ is a loss that business suffers on account of irrecoverable debts from insolvent debtor. It is an account relating to business loss, hence it is a Nominal A/c. If it is recovered in subsequent accounting year it is termed as Bad Debt Recovery A/c. The same is also included in Nominal A/c. as there is a gain on recovery of bad debts.
• Bank Charges A/c.: Bank charges are the expense for the business and income for the bank, therefore, Bank Charges A/c. is a Nominal A/c.
• Bank of India’s A/c.: Bank of India is a financial institution dealing in money. It is a legal person and so Bank of India’s A/c. is a Personal A/c.
• Mumbai English School A/c.: Mumbai English School is an educational institution. It is a legal person and hence Mumbai English School A/c. is a Personal A/c.
• Building A/c.: Building is an asset of the business. Account of business asset is known as Real A/c. Therefore, Building A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Cash A/c.: Cash in Hand is a business asset and hence Cash A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Carriage A/c.: Expenses incurred to carry goods or raw materials are known as carriage. Carriage is a business expense and hence it is a Nominal A/c.
• Commission A/c.: Commission if received by business, is a business income and if it is paid by business it is a business expense. Commission A/c. thus relates to income or expense of the business, hence it is a Nominal A/c.
• Copy Right A/c.: Copy right is the right given to author by law, in respect of sales of book written by him. Copy right is an asset of author. It is, therefore, a Real A/c.
• Capital A/c.: Capital is provided by proprietor. Proprietor is a living person. Hence, Capital A/c. is a Personal A/c.
• Debtor’s A/c.: Debtor is a person from whom money or money’s worth is receivable by business. Debtor may be natural or legal person. Therefore, Debtor’s A/c. is a Personal A/c.
• Depreciation A/c.: Depreciation is a reduction in value of the fixed asset of the business due to its use, wear and tear or any other similar causes. It is a business expense or notional loss. So Depreciation A/c. is a Nominal A/c.
• Discount A/c.: Discount is an allowance or concession, in money terms received or given by the business. If it is allowed by business it is an expense and if it is received by business it is an income. Hence, Discount A/c is a Nominal A/c.
• Dividend A/c.: Returns on share investment paid by company to shareholders are known as Dividend. Many times, a business invest the surplus money in the shares of company. Thus, dividend is a business income, and hence included in the classification of Nominal A/c.
• Drawings A/c.: Withdrawal in cash or in kind made by a businessman from time to time from business for self use or family’s use is known as drawings. It is an account of proprietor, a living person. Therefore, Drawing A/c is a Personal A/c.
• Freehold Premises A/c.: Premises means building and surrounding area or land attached to it. Premises which is not leased or hired is called ‘Freehold premises’. Freehold premises are an asset of the business and they are covered in Real A/c.
• Furniture A/c.: Furniture of business is a business asset and therefore, Furniture A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Goods A/c.: Goods exhibited or remained in the stock are business assets. So Goods A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Goodwill A/c.: Goodwill is a money value of business reputation earned by business over number of years. It is an intangible asset of the business. It is a Real A/c.
• Investment A/c.: Investment made by the business is a business asset and therefore, Investment A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Interest A/c.: Interest A/c. is an account of expense when it is due or paid by business on debt. Interest is an income if it is received or earned on investment, by business. Thus interest A/c. is a Nominal A/c.
• Insurance Premium A/c.: If business property is insured with insurance against risk of fire or theft, the business has to pay a stipulated amount decided by the insurance company at a regular interval to the insurance company. Such payment is called the insurance premium. It is a business expense. Thus, Insurance Premium A/c. is a Nominal A/c. ‘
• Live Stock A/c.: Stock or collection of animal kept for sale by the business is called Live Stock. It is an asset of the business. It is a Real A/c.
• Loan A/c.: Loan is given by business to debtor or it is taken by business from creditor. Debtor and creditor are persons. Therefore, Loan A/c. is a Personal A/c.
• Loss by Fire A/c.: Loss by fire is a business loss and so it is a Nominal A/c.
• Machinery A/c.: Machinery of business is a business asset and hence Machinery A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Motor Vehicles A/c.: Motor vehicles of business are business assets, so Motor Vehicles A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Patent A/c.: Patent refers to right of manufacturer or business to produce and sell goods or services. It is a business asset and therefore, Patent A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Printing and Stationery A/c.: Amount spent by business on printing and stationery is business expense and so Printing and Stationery A/c. is a Nominal A/c. x
• Prepaid Rent A/c.: Rent which is paid in advance by the business for period yet to exist is called prepaid rent. It is an asset of proprietor. Thus, Prepaid Rent A/c. is a Personal A/c.
  (Note: Outstanding and Prepaid expenses are Personal A/c. e.g. outstanding wages, prepaid insurance premium, outstanding salaries, etc. are Personal A/c.)
• Royalty A/c.: The amount paid to the owner of a copy right or patent right for making use of trade mark of their product is called Royalty. Royalty is a business expense. It is a direct expense of the business. So Royalty Account is a Nominal Account.
• Stock of Goods A/c. or Stock of Stationery A/c.: Total unsold goods or total goods remaining in the godown of the business is called stock of goods. Stationery remaining or unused in the office for daily correspondence is called stock of stationery. Both Stock of Goods A/c and Stock of Stationery A/c. are Real A/cs. as they are the assets of the business.
• Shiv Vaibhav Co-operative Stores A/c: Shiv Vaibhav Co-operative Stores is a legal person (it is recognised by law as person) and hence Shiv Vaibhav Co-operative Stores A/c is a Personal A/c.
• Shares A/c.: Amount invested by business in the company in the form of shares is called as investment in shares. It is an asset of business. Therefore, Shares A/c. is a Real A/c.
• Loose Tools A/c.: Different types of equipments and instruments used by business in manufacturing goods and services are together known as loose tools. It is a Real A/c.

(v) Table Showing Classification of Accounts Into Personal Accounts, Real Accounts & Nominal Accounts :

(vi) Meaning of Debit and Credit:

• Debit: To debit an account means to enter the entry or to write on the left hand side of an account.
• Credit: To credit an account means to enter the entry or to write on the right hand side of an account.

Examples :

(1) Paid ₹ 10,000 to Seema.
In this transaction since Seema is receiver of cash, her account is to be debited i.e. we have to enter this transaction on the debit side of Seema’s A/c. On the other hand as cash goes out from the business, Cash A/c is to be credited i.e. we have to enter the transaction on the credit side of Cash A/c.

(2) Received ₹ 6,000 from Sameer.
In this transaction since cash comes into the business, Cash A/c is to be debited i.e. we have to enter the transaction on the debit side of Cash A/c. On the other hand Sameer is the giver of cash and hence his account is to be credited i.e. we have to enter this transaction on the credit side of Sameer’s A/c.

Rules For Journalisation : (Golden Rules of Accountancy) (Traditional Approach)-

(a) Personal A/c.: Personal A/c. relates to persons with whom a business keeps dealings. A person may be a natural person or a legal person. If a person receives anything from the business, he is called receiver and his account is to be debited in the books of the business. If person gives anything to the business, he is called a giver and his account is to be credited in the books of the business.
Principle of Personal A/c. states that:

Debtt the Receiver of The BenefiT Credit the Giver of the Benefit:

E.g.

• Goods worth ₹ 1,000 sold to Ramesh. In this transaction, Ramesh is the receiver of goods, he is called receiver and his A/c is to be debited in the books of the business.
• Purchased goods worth ₹ 500/- from Kiran. In this transaction, Kiran is the giver of the goods to the business. He is giver and his A/c. is to be credited in the books of the business.
• Paid cash ₹ 500 to Sanjay. In this transaction Sanjay is the receiver. Hence, Sanjay’s A/c is to be debited.

(b) Real A/c.: Real A/c relates to property which may either come into the business or go from the business. If any property or ‘goods’ comes into the business, account of that property or goods is to be debited in the books of the business. If any property or ‘goods’ goes out from the business, account of that property or goods is to be credited in the books of the business. Principle of Real A/c states that:

Debit What Comes in Credit What Goes Out:

E.g. Goods sold on cash for ₹ 1,500/-. In this transaction cash, an asset comes into the business on sale of goods, and therefore Cash A/c is to be debited in the books of business. On the other hand, goods, an asset of the business goes out of the business on sale and therefore Goods A/c. is to be credited in the books of the business.

(c) Nominal A/c.: Nominal account is an account that relates to business expenses, loss, income and gain. If business incurs expense to manage and run business, account of that expense is to be debited in the books of business. When a business earns income by rendering services or hiring business assets, an account of that income is to be credited in the books of business. In the transaction of sale or purchase of goods or assets, if any loss is incurred by the business, account of that loss is to be debited in the books of the business. If in the transaction of sale of goods or asset any profit is earned by the business, then account of that profit is to be credited in the books of the business.
Principle of Nominal A/c. states that:

Debit All The Expenses or Losses
Credit All Incomes, Gains or Profits

E.g.

• Paid ₹ 50/- as commission to our agent.
• Received ₹ 100/- as interest on our fixed deposit.
• Sold old furniture costing ₹ 5,000/- for ₹ 4,000/- and incurred a loss of ₹ 1,000/-.

In the first transaction, commission which is paid to an agent is business expense and it is to be debited in the books of the business. In the second transaction interest which is received is business income and therefore it is to be credited in the books of the business. In the third transaction, the business has incurred a loss of ₹ 1,000/- on account of sale of furniture. The account of loss is to be debited in the books of the business.

Activity II (Given in the Text book to solve)

(I) From the following transactions find out

(1) Two Aspects (2) Two Accounts (3) Classify the Accounts
(i) Started business with Cash ₹ 50,000.
(ii) Purchased Machinery on credit from Avinash ₹ 20,000.
(iii) Purchased goods ₹ 5,000 from Rahul on cash.
Solution :
(1) Two Aspects

(2) Two Aspects and Two Accounts :

(3) Two Aspects, Two Accounts and Classify the Accounts :

Analysis of transaction by applying rules of Debit and Credit
(Traditional Approach)

Table showing various business transactions, two aspects affected, two accounts involved, classification of accounts, rules applicable, account to be debited and account to be credited is given below.

Activity: 02 (Given in Textbook to Solve)
Fill the following table.
Analysis of transaction by applying rules of Debit and Credit
(Traditional Approach)

Rules For Debit And Credit: (Modern approach) :
The chart showing the rules of debit and credit as per modern approach is given below.

Two fundamental rules are followed to record the changes in the accounts are stated below:

(1) For changes in Assets / Expenses.

• Increase (↑) in assets is debited and
  Decrease (↓) in asset side is credited
• Increase (↑) in expenses / losses is debited and
  Decrease (↓) in expenses / losses is credited.

(2) For changes in Liabilities / Revenues (Gains)

• Increase (↑) in Liabilities is credited and
  Decrease (↓) in Liabilities is debited.
• Increase (↑) in Revenues (Gains) is credited
  Decrease (↓) in Revenues (Gains) is debited.
• Increase (↑) in Capital is credited and
  Decrease (↓) in Capital is debited.

Activity: 03 : Fill the following table.
Analysis of transaction by applying rules of Debit and Credit (Modern Approach)

Analysis of the Following Transactions and Finding Out Their Effects-

(1) Started business with cash ₹ 50,000.
In this transaction cash comes in and increases (↑) Capital by ₹ 50,000. Hence, Cash A/c is debited by ₹ 50,000. On the other hand Liability of the business viz. Capital is created and increased (t). Hence, Capital A/c is credited by ₹ 50,000.

(2) Deposited ₹ 40,000 into the bank.
In this transaction after depositing Cash ₹ 40,000 into the bank, Bank balance increases (↑) and hence Bank A/c is debited by ₹ 40,000. On the other hand cash balance decreases (4) and hence, Cash A/c is credited by ₹ 10,000.

(3) Purchased goods worth ₹ 6,500 from Sameer on credit.
In this transaction Goods worth ₹.6,500 comes into the business after purchases. Purchases is our expense and it increases (↑). Hence, Purchases A/c is debited by ₹ 6,500. On the other hand Sameer is our Creditor and Liability towards creditor increases (↑). Hence, Sameer’s A/c is credited by ₹ 6,500.

(4) Sold goods worth ₹ 4,000 to Mr. Sawant on Credit.
In this transaction after sale of goods of ₹ 4,000, our revenue increases (↑) by ₹ 4,000. Hence, Sales A/c is credited. Mr. Sawant is our debtor and our assets in the form of cash receivable from debtors increases (↑). Hence, Mr. Sawant’s A/c is debited.

(5) Purchased Furniture for ₹ 25,000 for office use and amount paid by cheque.
In this transaction value of furniture i.e. assets increases (↑) and hence, Furniture A/c is debited by ₹ 25,000. After payment, bank balance i.e. our assets decreased (↓) and hence, Bank A/c is credited by ₹ 25,000.

(6) Received cash ₹ 2,000 from Mr. Sawant.
In this transaction cash comes in and cash balance i.e. assets increases (↑). Hence, Cash A/c is debited by ? 2,000. Amount receivable from Mr. Sawant i.e. debtor (asset) decreases (↓). Hence, Mr. Sawant’s A/c is credited by ₹ 2,000.

(7) Paid cash ₹ 1,500 to Sameer.
In this transaction, Sameer is our creditor and amount payable to Sameer i.e. Liability decreases. Hence, Sameer’s A/c is debited by ₹ 1,500. Cash goes out and cash balance i.e. asset decreases. Hence, Cash A/c is credited by ₹ 1,500.

From the following information prepare a chart showing assets, liabilities, incomes, expenses and capital.

(1) Furnitures and Fixtures
(2) Commission Received
(3) Machinery
(4) Sundry Creditors
(5) Bills Payable
(6) Discount Allowed
(7) Sundry Debtors
(8)  Patents
(9) Royalty
(10) Discount Earned
(11) Bills Receivable
(12) Drawings
(13) Capital
(14) Bank Loan
(15) Bank Balance
(16) Cash in Hand
(17) Salaries Paid
(18) Travelling Expenses
(19) Repairs and Renewals
(20) Goodwill
(21) Depreciation
(22) Bank Overdraft
(23) Prepaid Insurance
(24) Outstanding Salary
(25) Wages
(26) Carriage
(27) Premises
(28) Dividend Received.
Answer:

Accounting Equations :
Accounting equation implies that the total assets of a business are always equal to the total liabilities of a business plus capital i.e. Owner’s equity.

This equation is symbolically expressed as follows:
Assets = Liabilities + Capital OR
A = L + C

Other equations are stated below:
Capital = Total Assets – External Liabilities Total Assets = Total Liabilities Assets = External Liabilities + Capital Assets = Equities
Above fundamental equations provide foundation to Double Entry Book-keeping System.

Equities: The properties owned and possessed by the business are called as Assets. The rights to the properties are called equities. Equities may be sub-divided into two categories viz. the right to creditors and the right to the owners. The equity of creditors represents debts of the business. It is called liabilities. The equity of owner is called as Capital. Proprietor is the debtor of all his expenses and creditor for all his incomes. This relationship is shown in the following diagram.