Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 5 Electrochemistry students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 5 Electrochemistry

→ Electrical conductance (G) = \(\frac{1}{R}\)Ω^-1 2 or S

→ Cell constant = \(\frac{l}{a}\) cm^-1 (m^-1)

→ Conductivity(k) = \(\frac{\text { Cell constant }}{\text { Resistance }}\)

→ Molar Conductivity(∧_m) = \(\frac{\kappa}{C}\) (k in Ω^-1 m^-1 and C in mol^-3) OR
∧_m = \(\frac{\kappa \times 1000}{C}\) (k in Ω^-1 cm^-1 and C in mol dm^-3)

→ Kohlrausch’s law : ∧₀ = \(\lambda_{+}^{0}+\lambda_{-}^{0}\)

→ Degree of dissociation (α) = \(\frac{\Lambda_{\mathrm{m}}}{\Lambda_{0}}\)

→ Dissociation constant (Ka) = \(\frac{\bigwedge_{\mathrm{m}}^{2} C}{\Lambda_{0}\left(\Lambda_{0}-\Lambda_{\mathrm{m}}\right)}\)

→ 1 Faraday = 96500 C (Change on one mole of electrons)

→ E°_cell = E°_red (cathode) – E°_red (anode)

→ E_Mⁿ⁺/M = E°_Mⁿ⁺/M – \(\frac{0.0592}{n}\) log₁₀[Mⁿ⁺]

→ E_cell = E°_cell – \(\frac{0.0592}{n} \log _{10} \frac{[\text { Products }]}{[\text { Reactants }]}\)

→ ΔG° = – nFE°_cell

→ ΔG = -nFE_cell

→ ΔG°= -RTlnK

→ E°_cell = \(\frac{0.0592}{n}\) log₁₀K
For spontaneous cell reaction : E_cell > 0; ΔG < 0

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 4 Chemical Thermodynamics students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 4 Chemical Thermodynamics

→ W = -P (V₂ – V₁) = -PΔV (For expansion)

→ W = P (V₂ – V₁) = PΔV (For compression)

→ W_max = -2.303 nRT log₁₀ \(\frac{V_{2}}{V_{1}}\)

→ W_max= -2.303 nRT log₁₀ \(\frac{P_{1}}{P_{2}}\)

→ ΔU = q + W

→ H = U + PV

→ ΔH = ΔU + PΔV

→ ΔH = ΔU + ΔnRT

→ Hess’s law : ΔH = ΔH₁ + ΔH₂ + ΔH₃

→ ΔS = \(\frac{q_{\mathrm{rev}}}{T}=\frac{\Delta H}{T}\)

→ G = H – TS

→ ΔG = ΔH – TΔS

→ ΔG°= – 2.303 RTlog₁₀K

→ (i) ΔG = 0, the system is at equilibrium
(ii) ΔG < 0, the process is spontaneous
(iii) ΔG > 0, the process is non-spontaneous.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 3 Ionic Equilibria students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 3 Ionic Equilibria

→ Formulae on Ostwald’s dilution law:

→ K_w = [H₃O⁺] × [OH^–], at 25°C K_w = 1 × 10^-14

→ pH = -log₁₀[H⁺]; pOH = -log₁₀[OH^–]

→ pH + pOH = 14

→ Acidic buffer solution: pH = PK_a + log₁₀ \(\frac { [salt] }{ [acid] }\)

→ Basic buffer solution: pOH = pK_b + log₁₀ \(\frac { [salt] }{ [acid] }\)

→ PK_a = – log₁₀ K_a; pK_b = – log₁₀ K_b

→ Solubility product:

k_sp = (xs)^x (ys)^y = x^xy^y x (S)^x+y

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 2 Solutions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 2 Solutions

→ Henry’s law : S = K_HP

→ Raoult’s law : P_soln = x₁P₀

→ Mole fractions, x₁ + x₂ = 1

→ P_soln = P°₁x₁ + P°₂x₂

→ P_soln = (P°₂ – P°₁)x₂ + P°₁

→ Mole fractions of components in vapour phase : y₁ = \(\frac{x_{1} P_{1}^{0}}{P}\) and y₂ = \(\frac{x_{2} P_{2}^{0}}{P}\)

→ For ideal solutions : ΔV_mix = 0; Δ_mixH = 0

→ Relative lowering of vapour pressure = \(\frac{P^{0}-P}{P^{0}}\), x₂ = \(\frac{P^{0}-P}{P^{0}}\)

→ \(\frac{P^{0}-P}{P^{0}}=\frac{W_{2} \times M_{1}}{W_{1} \times M_{2}}\)

→ Δ T_b = K_b x m and Δ T_f — K_f x m

→ ΔT_b = K_b x \(\frac{W_{2} \times 1000}{W_{1} \times M_{2}}\)

→ ΔT_f = K_f x \(\frac{W_{2} \times 1000}{W_{1} \times M_{2}}\)

→ π = cRT and π = \(\frac{W R T}{M \times V}\)

→ i = \(\frac{Colligative property of electrolyte solution}{Colligative property of nonelectrolyte solution of the same concentration}\)

→ Van’t Hoff factor (i) = \(\frac{\Delta T_{\mathrm{b}(\mathrm{ob})}}{\Delta T_{\mathrm{b}(\mathrm{th})}}=\frac{\Delta P_{(\mathrm{ob})}}{\Delta P_{(\mathrm{th})}}=\frac{\Delta T_{\mathrm{f}(\mathrm{ob})}}{\Delta T_{\mathrm{f}(\mathrm{th})}}=\frac{\pi_{\mathrm{ob}}}{\pi_{\mathrm{th}}}=\frac{M_{\mathrm{th}}}{M_{\mathrm{ob}}}\)

→ Colligative properties considering van’t Hoff factor :

→ α = \(\frac{i-1}{n-1}\) (for dissociation)

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 1 Solid State students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 1 Solid State

Solids-

• Crystalline
• Amorphous

Crystalline solids-

• Ionic crystals
• Covalent network crystals
• Molecular crystals
• Metallic crystals

Crystal systems-

• Cubic
• Orthorhombic
• Tetragonal
• Monoclinic
• Rhombohedral
• Triclinic
• Hexagonal

Classification of crystal systems (Bravais lattices) :

Cubic lattice –

1. Simple cubic or primitive
2. Body centred cubic
3. Face centred cubic

Number of atoms in the unit cell :

Packing efficiency :

Number of tetrahedral voids = 2 Number of atoms
Number of octahedral voids = Number of atoms

Relation between radius (r) of an atom and edge length (a) of cubic unit cell

Density of the crystal: p = \(=\frac{n \times M}{a^{3} \times N_{\mathrm{A}}}\)

Defects in solids-

(1) Point defects-

1. Vacancy defects (Schottky defects)
2. Interstitial defects (Frenkel defects)
3. Impurity defects-
   • Substitutional impurity defects
   • Interstitial impurity defects

(2) Nonstoichiometric defects

• Metal deficiency defect
• Metal excess defect

Conducting solids-

• Conductors
• Semiconductors
• Insulators

Semiconductors –

• Intrinsic
• Extrinsic
• n-type
• p-type

Magnetic properties-

• Diamagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Ferromagnetic

(1) Diamagnetism is due to the presence of all paired electrons in the substance.
(2) Paramagnetism is due to the presence of one or more unpaired electrons in the substance.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 12th Commerce Notes Chapter 3 Issue of Shares students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 3 Issue of Shares

→ A joint-stock company can raise its capital by issuing shares, debentures, inviting public deposits, taking loans etc.

→ Share Capital refers to the capital made up out of equity shares and preference shares.

Share Capital can be classified as –

• Authorised or Nominal or Registered Capital
• Issued and Unissued Capital
• Subscribed and Unsubscribed Capital
• Called up and uncalled Capital and Reserve Capital
• Paid up Capital and Calls in Arrears

Company can raise capital by selling shares in the market. Generally it issues –

• Equity shares
• Preference shares.

A company can use the following methods for issues of shares –

• Public Issue
• Fixed price issue method
• book building method
• Initial public offer
• Further public offer
• Rights issue
• Bonus issue
• Employee stock option scheme
• Employee stock purchase scheme
• Stock appreciation rights scheme
• Sweat equity shares
• Private placement

Preferential allotment-

Allotment of Shares:
The Supreme Court has defined allotment as “the appropriation out of the previously unappropriated capital of the company of a certain number of shares to a person.
Thus allotment of shares means allotting shares to an applicant based on the application submitted.

Share Certificate:
It is a registered document issued by a company which is an evidence of ownership of specified number of shares of the company. Share certificate should be issued by the company within two months.

Calls on shares:
Besides the application money and allotment money, if a company demands the balance unpaid amount on shares it is called as calls on shares. It is unpaid money demanded by the company.

Forfeiture of Shares:
If a shareholder fails to pay calls on shares within a certain period, the Board of Directors can forfeit the ownership of a member which is called forfeiture of shares. It is a forceful act by the company. Here membership is terminated by the company.

Surrender of Shares:
Voluntary return of shares by the member to the company for cancellation of shares is called surrender of shares.

Transfer of shares:
Transfer of shares means voluntary transfer of shares by a member of a company in favour of another person against consideration. It is a voluntary activity.

Transmission of shares:
When the shares of a member is automatically transferred to the nominee or legal heir on the death, insolvency or insanity of a member, it is called transmission of shares. It is performed by operation of law.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 12th Commerce Notes Chapter 2 Sources of Corporate Finance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 2 Sources of Corporate Finance

→ No business activity can ever be pursued without financial support.

→ Finance is necessary throughout the activities of promotion, organization, and regular operations of the business.

→ The finance needed by a business organization is termed as ‘Capital’

→ Capital formation is a process of collection of capital from various sources according to the financial plan of the company.

→ The various sources of finance can be divided into owned capital and borrowed capital which may be external or internal.

→ When capital is made available from within the organization, it is an internal source of financing.

→ When capital is raised from outsiders, it is an external source of financing.

→ Owned capital is regarded as permanent capital and borrowed capital is regarded as the temporary capital.

→ The various requirements of finance can be divided into short term (maximum one year) and long term (more than a year maybe 5,10,15 years).

→ There are various methods of raising finance namely shares, debentures, bonds, retained earnings/profits, public deposits, trade credit, bank credit, ADR (American Deposit Receipts), and GDR (Global Depository Receipts)

→ A share is a small unit of the share capital of a company.

→ They may be issued at par, premium, or discount and redeemed at par or premium.

→ Equity shares do not enjoy a preference for dividends and do not have priority for payment of capital at the time of winding up of a company.

→ Equity shareholders are risk-takers and hence they are the real owners of the company.

→ Preference shares have prior right to receive a fixed rate of dividend and return of capital in the event of winding up of the company

→ Preference shareholders are cautious investors.

→ They neither take part in management nor attend the meetings and vote on resolutions.

→ They can have class meetings if their rights are to be altered or have not received dividends for more than two consecutive years.

→ The debt acknowledged by a company by issuing a debenture certificate is called a debenture.

→ Debenture holders are creditors of the company.

→ They get fixed interest as a return on their investment.

→ A bond is an instrument issued by the government or business as evidence of debt.

→ Bondholders are creditors of the company.

→ They get fixed interest as returns on their investment regularly or as per terms agreed.

→ Retained earnings is the sum total of accumulated profit that is re-invested in the business.

→ It is a cost-effective method of raising funds and is also known as self-financing/ploughing back of profits/
capitalization of Reserves.

→ A public deposit is a collateral-free loan accepted by public companies for a short period of time ranging from 6
months to 36 months.

→ The company can raise loans from banks in the form of overdraft, cash credit, cash loans discounting of bills. etc.

→ Financial institutions provide financial aid and assistance to companies.

→ Trade credit is a credit extended by manufacturers and suppliers to follow businessmen for 15 days to a
month.

→ Discount is made available if payments are made early.

→ A Bill of exchange is a trade bill that is accepted by the bank and cash is advanced as a loan against it.

→ ADR (American Depository Receipt) and GDR ( Global Depository Receipt) are depository receipts through
which Indian Companies raise equity capital in international markets.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Liberty and Rights students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Liberty and Rights

Introduction:
Political concepts involve an analytical study of ideas that are central to political thought. In this chapter, we will examine the political concepts of Liberty and Rights. These deal with the status of the individual in society.

We will study the nature of what the concept of liberty should include i.e., views of thinkers like Hobbes, Locke. Rousseau, Mill, Bentham, classification, etc. This chapter also includes the study of rights, its classification, etc.

Meaning And Nature Of Liberty:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word ‘liber’ which means ‘free’. Thus liberty means freedom. People are said to have liberty when the rights and duties of the citizens in a democracy are secured by the State. Liberty is an essential feature of a democracy.

Liberty has been explained in different ways such as an absence of restraints, freedom of choice, and availability of favourable conditions towards the attainment of happiness. It is also understood as self-rule i.e., freedom from foreign rule.

Views Of Different Thinkers About Liberty:
Thomas Hobbes: He explained liberty as the freedom that an individual has to act without restraint.

John Locke: He explained liberty within the context of morality. Liberty is a natural right of an individual which should be enjoyed rationally. Locke’s concept of liberty focuses on the absence of restraint and the freedom of choice.

Jean Jacques Rousseau: He looked at liberty from a collective perspective. His concept of liberty frees the individual from a class-based system and inequality. He did not consider liberty as a natural right. Rousseau stressed freedom of choice and the availability of favourable conditions in the concept of liberty.

Harold Laski: He explained liberty as the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be their best selves.

Jeremy Bentham: He looked at liberty from the perspective of attainment of happiness i.e., the principle of ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’.

John Stuart Mill: He supported individual liberty and opposed unrestrained controls by the state.

Indian Concept Of Liberty:
Traditionally, in India, liberty is a spiritual idea signifying ‘salvation or emancipation from the cycle of birth and rebirth’. However, in modern times, liberty is understood as liberation from social constraints.

In British India, the concept of liberty was accepted as –

• Laws made by the British for the protection of individual rights e.g. law for the abolition of sati.
• Views of great reformers like Mahatma Phule, Dr Ambedkar. They believed liberty means freedom from caste inequality as well as from social constraints i.e., the liberation of lower castes from the domination of the upper castes.
• Mahatma Gandhi accepted the concept of Swaraj as liberty. This was a comprehensive concept that included freedom from British rule and western cultural domination. It gave more importance to self-governance, self-discipline and human values.

Two Concepts Of Liberty:
Isaiah Berlin discussed about Negative and Positive liberty in his famous essay, ‘Two concepts of Liberty’ Positive liberty emerged from modern liberalism while negative liberty emerged from Classical and Neoclassical liberalism. The core values of liberalism are individualism, rationalism, tolerance and justice. Positive liberty was advocated by Rousseau and Marcuse.

They advocated a correlation between liberty, equality, justice, and collective interest. Rousseau explained that the State is a sovereign power that represents the ‘General Will’. Hence, he supported the idea of state control over the individual. Marcuse advocated collective control as essential in community life.

Negative liberty opposes all restraints on liberty, especially by the State. It was advocated by Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and others.

Rights:
Rights are those social conditions that are necessary for the development of our personality. Laski defines rights as ‘those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be himself at his best.

Natural Rights – These rights are universal in character e.g., the right to life and liberty.

Moral Rights – These rights are based on the conscience of the person and of the community e.g., respect for elders.

Legal Rights – These rights are granted by the State and are codified in law.
These rights are not universal. Legal rights maybe

• Civil rights: related to the person and property of the individuals e.g., right to liberty, equality, property,
• Political rights: are available only to citizens in a democratic state and aim to encourage active political participation e.g., the right to vote, to contest elections.

Human Rights:
Meaning: Each person is entitled to certain basic, natural rights, simply by virtue of being a human being. Human rights are inalienable, universal, dynamic, related to the concept of justice and are necessary to uphold human dignity. Human rights include the right to life.

The General Assembly of the U.N.O. adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.) on 10th December 1948. The U.D.H.R. combines the ideals of liberty, equality, justice and fraternity with natural and civil rights.

There are instances of human rights violations in many countries of the world due to poverty, malnutrition, discrimination and deprivation. Underprivileged sections of society, women, children are most vulnerable where violations of rights are concerned.

Part III of the Indian Constitution enumerates the Fundamental Rights of citizens. These include the Right to equality, Right to freedom, Right against exploitation, Right to freedom of religion, Cultural and educational rights and Right to constitutional remedies.

The judiciary has interpreted the meaning of rights and liberty in various judgements, e.g., in the Francis Coralie Mullin vs Union Territory of Delhi case (1981), the Supreme court gave a comprehensive meaning of liberty. The right to life meant the right to live with dignity. In the K. S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India case (2017), the Supreme Court declared right to privacy as a fundamental right.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board 12th Science Chemistry Notes Chapter 13 Amines students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Notes Chapter 13 Amines

Amines are nitrogen-containing organic compounds having basic character.

1. Classification of amines :

2. Methods of preparation and the reactions of primary amines :

3. Electrophilite aromatic substitution :

4. Preparation and reactions of arene Diazoniuni salts :

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes Chapter 9 Business Communication Skills of Secretary students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 9 Business Communication Skills of Secretary

Communication-

• Latin word — ‘Communis’ meaning “Common”- “Shared by all”
• Definition : “It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons” — George R, Terry

Business Communication : Definition-
“It is the expression channeling, receiving and interchanging of ideas in commerce and industry.” — Brennar

Types of Communication-

1. Internal Communication
2. External Communication

Internal Communication:

• within various
• departments of an
• organization

External Communication

• between business
• organizations and outsiders.
• (banks, suppliers, creditors, Government, etc.)

Method of Communication-

1. Verbal or Oral Communication
2. Non – Verbal Communication
3. Written Communication

1. Verbal or Oral Communication

• Personal talks,
• Interviews,
• Speeches,
• Talking on telephone, etc.

2. Non – Verbal Communication

• body language
• facial expression
• eye contact
• silence, symbols, signs, gestures, etc.

3. Written Communicatin:

• reports
• letters
• circulars
• notices
• minutes, etc.

Merits of Written Communication-

• Accurate and Precise
• Economical
• Re-readab1e
• Completeness
• Eliminates personal contact
• personal contact
• Wide acces
• Documentary evidence

Essential Skills for Effective Communication-

• Listening
• body Language
• Give and Take Feedback
• Clear and Concise
• Empathy
• Confident
• Personal Touch

Business Letter: “It is a message that attempts to influence its recipients to take some action or attitude
desired by the sender.” – Robert

Layout of A Business Letter-

1. Proper arrangement of parts of a letter
2. Structural design of a. letter
3. Internal arrangement of matter

Layout of Business Letter-

1. Heading – name, address, telephone number, fax number, email Id, CIN, website, etc.
2. Date – British style or American Style
3. Reference number – left hand side below heading
4. Inside Address – name and address of receiver
5. Subject – shows purpose of the letter
6. Salutation – left hand margin below inside address
7. Body of the letter – introduction, main message and conclusion
8. Complimentary close – should match salutation
9. Signature – signature and name of person with designation
10. Enclosure – written on left hand side as ‘Enel’
11. Carbon Copy notation (C.C.) – left hand side below enclosure
12. Postscript – additional information after completion of letter
13. Identification Initials – initials of dictator and typist

Essentials of a Good Bussiness Letter (8 C’S)

1. Clarity
2. Cheerfulness
3. Conciseness
4. Consideration
5. Coherence
6. Completeness
7. Correctness
8. Courtesy

Physical Appearance of the Business Letter-

• Paper
• Typing
• Margin
• Envelope
• Spacing
• Folding
• Letterhead

Notice : It is an intimation given by the company to the member about day, date, time, place of the meeting and business to be transacted at the meeting.

Report: It is a statement of facts or opinion along with conclusion (with or without some recommendations)

Minutes :

• It is a written summary of the business transacted at the meeting.
• It is prepared by secretary, confirmed by members or directors, singed by a Chairman and counter signed by a secretary.
• It is written in past tense within 15 days of a meeting.
• It is written in minutes book in proper format.

Word Meaning:

entities – organization; verbal – oral; conveying – sending; circulars- written information distributed among people; layout – process of setting matter on a page; custom – procedure required: memos – a warning letter in written; draft – outline; authenticity – originality; factual – actual; precision – correctness; insistence – demands; economical – low cost; nominal – reasonable / less; blog – informal written material regularly updated on website; conferring – take part in a conference (meeting); pitch – the rate of sound produced low or high; gestures – to express an idea; empathy – ability to understand other; alignment – arranging in straight line; reference – mention; salutation – greeting; conclusion – finish / to end; brevity – in short; enclosure- additional documents attach to a letter; coherence – put in proper order.