Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Organisation of Commerce and Management 11th Notes Chapter 2 Trade students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Organisation of Commerce and Management 11th Notes Chapter 2 Trade

Meaning of Trade-

Trade means the process of exchange of goods and services with an object of earning profit estab1ishin
link between producers and consumers.

Types of Trade :

1. Internal Trade
2. External Trade

Internal Trade

• Wholesale Trade
• Retail Trade

Retail Trade

1. Itinerant Retailers
2. Fixed Shop Retailers

Itinerant Retailers:

• Hawkers
• Peddlers
• Street Traders
• Cheap Jacks
• Market Traders

Fixed Shop Retailers

1. Small Scale Retailers
2. Large Scale Retailers

Small Scale Retailers-

• General stores
• Second hand goods shops
• Authorized dealers
• Speciality shops

Large Scale Retailers

• Departmental Stores
• Supermarket Stores
• Chain Stores
• One price shops
• Malls

Channel Of Distribution-

• Producer / Manufacturer
• Wholesaler
• Retailer
• Consumer

Wholesale Trade-

By Philip Kotler
“Wholeselling includes all activities involved in selling goods or services to those who buy for resale or for business use.”

By Evelyn Thomas
“A true wholesaler is himself neither a manufactures nor a retailer but act as a link between the two.”

Features of Wholesaler-

• Purchases goods from the producer in large quantities.
• Takes risk in the process of distribution.
• Deals with one or few types of goods.
• A large amount of capital is required.
• Maintains price stability by balancing supply and demand factors. Manufacturers get direct information about market.
• Sells the goods to the retailers.

Performs the marketing functions-

• Assembling
• Warehousing
• Transporting
• Advertising
• Grading

Services of Wholesalers

1. To Retailers
2. To Manufacturers

To Retailers

• finance Assistance
• Collecting order and Distribution of Goods
• Large Purchase
• Transportation
• Risk Bearing
• Provide Market Information
• Marketing Function
• Storage

To Manufacturers

• Financial Support
• Market nformation
• Risk Bearing
• Stock of Goods
• Warehousing and [ ransport
• Regular Supply
• Sales Promotion

Retail Trade-

Meaning of Retail Trade:

According to Oxford Dictionary “Retail is sale of goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption rather than for resale”

According to William Stanton “Retail Trade includes all activities directly related to the sale of goods and services to the ultimate consumer for personal and non business use”

Features of Retailers-

• Link between the wholesaler and consumers.
• Operates in local markets.
• Deals in wide varieties of goods in small quality.
• Limited investment is required.
• Less risk and low amount of profit.

Services of Retailers:

1. Service to Wholesaler
2. Service to Consumers

Service to Wholesaler

• Create demand
• Helps to Distribute
• Marketing
• Financing
• Attracts Consumers
• Provides Information
• Connecting Link
• Increase Sales

Service to Consumers

• Variety of Goods
• After Sales Services
• Regular Supply of Goods
• Credit Facilities
• Home Delivery
• Information
• Local Convenience
• Improves Standard of Living
• Sale of Perishable Goods

Types of Retailers-

Itinerant Retailer – Retailers who do not have a fixed place or shop for their business.

• Hawkers: They move from one place to another carrying goods in hand cart.
• Peddlers:  They carry goods on their head in baskets or container.
• Street Traders: They do business on footpaths of busy street of cities and towns
• at crowded places like market places, bus stops, railway stations, etc.
• Cheap Jacks: They have independent shops with temporary setup, keep on changing places of their business.
• Market Traders : They open their shops on market days i.e. on different places on fixed days.

Retailers-
Fixed Shop Retailers
Small Scale Fixed Retailers

They Conduct their business operations on a small scale and deal in variety of goods)

• General Stores: They sell goods which are required by people for their day to day needs situated near residential areas of the city or town.
• Second hand Goods shop :They purchase and sell used goods at cheap rates, which are lack of quality, durability and guarantee.
• Authorized Dealer: They have authorized dealership of particular manufacturers of goods. They get good commission from manufacturers.
• Speciality shops: They deal in particular line of goods, offer goods at varying price range with wide range of choice, giving expert advice to the customer.

Retailers-
Fixed Shop Retailers
Large Scale Fixed Retailers

(They conduct their business operations on a large scale by investing huge capital, selling variety of quality goods and located at localities of the city)

Department Stores-

Meaning of Department Stores:
According to James Stephenson
“A big store engaged in the retail trade of variety of articles under the same roof”

According to G.B. Giles
“A departmental store is collection of shops under one roof and ownership, each shop or department specializing in selling a special range of goods’

Features of Department Stores-

1. Shopping Convenience
2. Centralized Management
3. Wide Variety of Goods
4. Specialization
5. Central Location
6. Huge Capital
7. No Create Facility

Super Market Shop –

“A large store selling a wide variety of consumer goods, particularly food and small articles
of household requirements.”

Features of Super Market Shop –

1. Location
2. Types of Goods
3. Self Service
4. Reasonable Prices
5. Capital
6. Cash Sales
7. Attractive Packing
8. Impulsive Buying

Chain Stores-

Definition of Chain Stores:
According to James Stephenson “A chain store shops consists of a number of similar shops owned by a single business firm”.

According to Clark and Clark
“Chain stores system consists of a number of retail store, which sell similar products are centrally owned and operated under one management”.

Features of Chain Stores-

• Low and Uniform Price
• Uniformity
• Limited Range of Goods
• Large Investment
• Distribution through Branches
• Cash Sales
• Quality of Goods
• Impulsive Buying

One Price Shop-

Meaning

• The shops where the prices of all the products or goods are same is known as one price shop.
• Selling a large variety of goods of daily use at low prices.

Features of One price Shop

• Uniform Price
• Low Price
• Variety of Goods
• Location
• Cash Sales
• Less Capital

Mall
Meaning —A mall is large enclosed shopping complex containing various stores, business and restaurants.
Features:

• Enables customer to buy different products from one unit to other units of mall.
• Entertainment venues such as movie theaters and restaurants.
• Variety of things available at one place.

International Trade-
Meaning — When the trade activities are conducted between two or more countries, it is called as ‘International Trade’.

International Trade (External Trade)-

1. Export Trade
2. Import Trade
3. Entrepot Trade

Export Trade-
Meaning — Export trade refers to sale of goods and services to foreign country.

Export Procedure-

1. Priliminary Stage
2. Preshipment Stage
3. Shipment Stage
4. Post Shipment Stage

Priliminary Stage:

• Registration
• Appointment of Agent

Preshipment Stage:

• Receipt of order
• Letter of credit
• Pre-shipment finance
• Production
• Packaging
• ECGC cover (Export Credit and Guarantee Corporation
• GST Formalities (Goods and Services tax)
• Marine Insurance
• C & F agents (Clearing and Forwarding)

Shipment Stage:

• Processing
• Examination of goods
• Loading of goods

Post Shipment Stage:

• Shipment advice
• Presentation of document
• Realization of incentives
• Follow up

Import Trade-
Meaning — Import trade refers to the purchase of goods and services from foreign country.

Import Procedure –

1. Priliminary Stage
2. Pre Import Stage
3. Import Stage
4. Post Import Stage

Priliminary Stage:

• Registration
• Negotiation

Pre Import Stage:

• Quota – Certificate
• Foreign Exchange
• Order placement
• Letter of Credit
• C & F Agent
• Shipment Advice

Import Stage:

• Receipt of Document
• Bill of entry
• Delivery of order
• Custom Clearance

Post Import Stage:

• Post trust due
• Custom duty
• Insurance premium
• Freight payment
• Exporter payment
• Follow-up

Entrepot Trade-
Meaning — The term entrepot is referred to as a seaport or warehouse where goods would be imported for storage or process before re- export.

Word Meaning:

vital – important; strategies – planning; entity – individual body; relatively – in comparison; promotion – to support; barter – exchange of goods and services without using money; preferences – likings; simplified
– easy; salesmanship – skill or ways to use sell something; establishes – builds; arrivals – new things; itinerant – travelling from one place to another; window display – in a shop product are display to attract the customer; sufficient – adequate / enough; channel – medium / method; after sales service – providing service after purchasing something; intermediaries – middleman; durable – long lasting; stability – fixed; commission – monetary benefits for service provided; assembling – to collect; urbanization – making an area to a city; grading – to arrange as per size and shape; recruitment – appointment; valuable – very useful; access – approach; fluctuations – rise and fall of something; variants – different; induced – influence / attracted; impulsive – unplanned / quick; appearance – the way that something looks like; discrepancies
– differences; irrespective – without consideration; overhead – above; bargaining – to discuss; door to door – way of marketing from one door to another door; reasonable – fair; globe – world; complex – a whole structure of building interconnected; tariff – tax / duty; prompt – quick; convenience – without any effort; lengthy – very long; exporter – a person / company that send goods or services to another country; importer – a person / company that buys goods or services from another country; transit – transport; incentive – benefit; indigenous – local; freight – goods transported by train / ship / truck; quota – quantity; overseas – foreign country; port – a place where ships are loaded and unloaded.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes Chapter 8 Company Meetings – II students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 7 Company Meetings – I

Types of Company Meeting-

1. Shareholders Meeting
2. Directors Meeting
3. Creditors Meeting

1. Shareholders Meeting:

• General Meeting
• Class Meeting

General Meeting:

• Annual General Meeting (U/S 96)
• Extraordinary General Meeting (U/S 100)

2. Directors Meeting:

• Board Meeting
• Committee Meeting

Annual General Meeting (u/s 96)-
(Equity shareholders meeting. Once in every financial year.)

Purpose :

• to adopt Annual Accounts / Directors Report / Auditor’s Report
• to declare dividend
• to elect Directors in place of retiring Directors
• to appoint auditors and fix their remuneration
• to review progress and performance of company

Legal provisions :
(1) Time of Holding General Meeting:

First Annual General Meeting: Time Period Within 9 months of closing of the first financial year
Subsequent Annual General Meeting: Time Period Within 6 months after completion of its financial year
The Interval between two AGM:  Time Period Should not be more than 15 months.
Extension of time for conducting AGM: Time Period Not more than 3 months

(2) Authority to convene Meeting — The Board of Directors
(3) Notice period — 21 clear days
(4) Date, time and place of AGM
(5) Quorum

1. Public Company
2. Private Company

1. Public Company-

2. Private Company: Minimum two members

(6) Adjournment of Meeting – to be held on the same day, time and place in the next week.
(7) Default:

• Punishable with fine.
• Fine may be upto ₹1,00,000 in the case of continuing default.
• It may extend upto ₹5000 per day.

Extra Ordinary General Meeting (U/S 100)-

• to transact Special Business
• Convened between two Annual General Meetings.

Purpose of Extra Ordinary General Meeting-

To take immediate decisions on –

• Alteration in Memorandum of Association
• Alteration of Articles of Association
• Removal of Director before expiry of his / her terms
• Removal of Auditor before expiry of his / her terms
• Voluntary winding up of company

Legal Provisions for Extra Ordinary General Meeting-

Authority to convene:

• Board of Directors
• Board of Directors on requisition of Members
• Requisitionist themselves
• National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) or Government

Class Meeting: (U/S 48)-

• Meaning : Held to make changes in rights and duties of particular class of shareholders.
• Resolution : Special resolutions are passed.
• Purpose : To change rights of a particular class of shareholders and get consent for the change.
• Frequency : Not held regularly.

Directors Meeting (Section 173)-

1. Board Meeting
2. Committee Meeting

Board Meeting (Section 173)-
Legal provisions

(A) Authority to Convene: Chairman of the Board

(B) Number of Board Meeting:

• First Board Meeting
  → Within 30 days of the date of it’s incorporation.
• Subsequent Board Meeting
  → Minimum of 4 Board meetings year
• One Person Company
  → at least one meeting in each half of calendar year
  → gap between the two meetings should not be less than 90 days.

(C) Virtual Meeting: By audio visual means
(D) Notice (Section 173 (3): at least 7 days before Meeting
(E) Quorum – (Section 174): 1/3 of total number of directors or two directors whichever is higher
(F) Adjournment of meeting: Absence of quorum to be held on same day / time and place in the next week.

Committee Meeting-

• B.O.D. appoint small committee of Directors
• To study the various matters / problems of the company
• Audit committee, Transfer of share committee, share allotment committee,

Creditors Meeting-

• Company hold meeting of debenture holders, depositors, lenders, bankers, etc.
• to discuss the rate of interest or in financial crisis for creditor’s support.

Functions of Secretary Related With Annual General Meeting

(1) Functions before the AGM

• Fixing the Board Meeting
• Issue of Notice
• Speech of the Chairman
• Preliminary Arrangement
• Company Accounts

(2) Functions during the AGM (3)

• Attendance (i)
• Quorum (ii)
• Reading Reports (iii)
• Writing the Proceedings
• Helps Chairman (iv)
• Conduct Poll

3. Functions After the AGM

• Drafting the Minutes
• Implementing Decision
• Sending documents and filing resolutions
• Send information to absent members

Word Meaning:

dividend – a part of Company’s profit distributed to shareholders for their contributions; remuneration — salary; quorum — minimum numbers of Members required for the meeting; winding up — closure of company; requisitionist — a person who requests to call a meeting; resolution — a decision was taken at the meeting; consent — approval; frequently — regularly; dormant company — a company whose progress is slow; poll — election; secure — to fixed; assists — to help; audiovisual — using both sound and pictures together; penalty — fine; adjourned — to postpone/taking a break; calendar year — year which starts from January to December.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 12th Commerce Notes Chapter 11 Financial Market students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 11 Financial Market

→ Every business has to raise short and long-term funds to meet the working and fixed capital needs of the business.

→ Financial Market is a place where borrowers and lenders are coming together.

→ Financial Market consists of –

(1) Money Market – Provide Short term loans
RBI controls over money market

(2) Capital Market – Provide Medium / Long term loans
SEBI controls over capital market

→ Financial Market is advancing loans to an individual, public and private institutions, state-local-central Government.

→ Money Market is dealing with –

1. Treasury Bills
2. Commercial Papers
3. Certificate of Deposits
4. Commercial Bills
5. Money Market Mutual Fund
6. Repo and Reverse Repo

→ Capital Market is dealing with –

1. Shares
2. Debentures
3. Bonds
4. Mutual Funds etc.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 12th Commerce Notes Chapter 12 Stock Exchange students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 12 Stock Exchange

→ Stock exchange is a place where securities are traded i.e. buying and selling takes place.

→ Stock Exchange in India is regulated by SEBI i.e. Securities Exchange Board of India.

→ The Securities Control (Regulation) Act 1956 provides rules for the functioning, licensing and controlling speculations of Stock Exchanges.

Stock Exchange in India:

1. Bombay Stock Exchange
2. National Stock Exchange

Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)-

• – It is the oldest stock exchange in Asia which was established in 1875.
• – BSE was the first Stock Exchange in India.
• – The index of BSE is called Sensex or BSE 30.
• – In February 2001, BSE has launched BSEWebx.co.in an internet trading system.

National Stock Exchange of India (NSEI)-

• NSEI was incorporated in November 1992.
• First demutualized electronic exchange in India.
• The Index of NSE is called as the NIFTY launched in 1996.

Agents in Stock Exchange-

1. Boker
2. Speculator

Boker:

• Stag
• Lame Duck
• Wolves

Speculator:

• Bull
• Bear

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 6 Ocean Resources students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 6 Ocean Resources

→ The scientific study of oceans began in the early nineteenth century when the British ship ‘Challenger’ sailed around the world. It brought information about the ocean depths and teeming life found in them.

→ With the help of the Echo sounder technique, the map makers began to map different ocean floors. Today, many nations are involved in the study of the oceans.

→ The Structure of Ocean Floor

• Presently, not only are the surface or coastal areas of the ocean are exploited but advanced
  research is carried out to see how the deeper part of the oceans can be useful to mankind.
• The continental shelf: The portion of the continents that is submerged underwater and borders the coastal areas is known as a continental shelf.
• Continental slope: After the extent of the continental shelf is over, there is a sharp drop in the ocean floor. The gradient of slope in this region can be between 2° to 5°. This is called the continental slope.
• Abyssal plains: Beyond the continental slope, lie the abyssal plains. The abyssal plains are often littered with nodules of manganese-containing varying amounts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper.
• The oceanic trenches: At places, deep, narrow, and steeply sloping depressions are found on the ocean floor. These are called ocean deeps of ocean trenches.
• Oceanic ridges and plateaus: The submerged mountains on the ocean floor are called oceanic ridges. At places, the peaks of oceanic ridges appear above the ocean surface. These are called oceanic islands.

Type of Oceanic Islands:

1. Continental Islands
2. Volcanic Island
3. Coral Islands

Ocean Resources:
There are a variety of biotic and abiotic resources found abundantly at different levels of ocean floor.

Use of Oceans:

1. Tidal and Thermal Energy
2. Drinking Water
3. Trade and Transport
4. Tourism

International Resources:
International institutions regulate the ocean resources. The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions.

Marine Pollution:

• Human dependence on oceans is likely to increase manifold. However, nowadays, the oceanic waters are getting polluted on a large scale. This causes deterioration of the natural quality of ocean water.
• The leakages of oil from oil transporting ships, oil extraction from coastal areas, disposal of solid waste containing radioactive matter, atomic tests, etc., are causing large-scale pollution of oceanic waters.
• The effluents brought by river discharges, the disposal of waste from coastal cities, the waste from industries, and many other similar factors are polluting the oceanic waters.
• As a result, the very existence of marine life is threatened.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 5 Global Climate Change students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 5 Global Climate Change

→ The average temperature on the surface of the Earth depends on a number of factors like the time of day, the time of year, and where the temperatures measurements are being taken.

→ The average temperature of the Earth is around 14°C. This average temperature has increased by 0.8°C.

→ The average surface temperature of the earth is increasing and it has been found that the impact of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, etc., has been enormous.

→ This has led to an increase in the heat holding capacity of the atmosphere which in turn increases the temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming.

→ Effects of Global Warming:

• Heat Waves
• Heat Islands
• Increase in Sea Level
• Melting of glaciers at high altitudes and snow in polar areas

→ Global sea level has been rising at a rate of about 3 mm/per year. This global sea level rise is caused because of increased melting of ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.

→ Higher sea levels may lead to deadlier cyclones and frequent flooding of coastal areas. Many islands are also at risk of getting submerged. It means loss of habitat for fishes, birds and plants.

→ Climate Change :

Climatic change is felt in the intensity, duration and spell of the seasons. The frequent change in the patterns of climate at the global level is considered as climate change.

Changes Observed at the Global Level:

1. Arrival of Monsoons
2. Quantity and Frequency of Rainfall
3. Change in Seasons
4. Change in Flowering
5. Increase in Occurrence of Floods or Drought

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has been mentioning about climate pattern indicators in their reports regularly.

Drastic Change in the Climate Patterns:

1. Increase in the number and intensity of floods
2. Increase in the intensity of droughts and cyclones
3. Carbon dioxide and crop yields
4. Rainforests and climate change

Causes of Climate Change :
Human activities are a major cause behind climate change. However, there are some natural causes for climate change as well.

Naturals Causes of Climate Changes:

1. Energy output by the sun
2. Milankovitch Oscillations
3. Volcanism
4. Goldiocks Zone

Tools for Studying Climate Change :

• Scientists and meteorologists have been using instruments to measure climate and weather.
• They use historical evidence called proxy data to measure climate and weather of millions of years ago.

Proxy Data:

• Coral Reefs
• Tree Rings
• Ice Cores

Climate Change and India:

• Developing countries, the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and small island nations are at the highest risk of damage due to the climate change.
• Countries such as India and China contribute significantly to global emissions and have an important role to play.
• India has high vulnerabilities to climate change impacts due to its peculiar economy and geography.
• Besides, promoting clean energy and taking steps to protect environment, the government of India has taken the important steps for combating climate change.

Steps for Combating Climate Change:

1. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008
2. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)
3. National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF)

Lifestyle Changes and Climate Change:
This could include only buying things that are necessary, walking smaller distances, using energy-efficient devices, reducing our dependence on wood, and not using plastic.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 4 Climatic Regions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 4 Climatic Regions

Five Spheres of the Earth:

1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Biosphere
4. Magnetosphere

→ The climate of any region is decided by detailed study and observation for a longer period of time such as 30 years.

→ The climate of a place is responsible for the variety in so many factors including our food, our occupations, our houses, our clothes and many activities.

→ Natural Regions – It is a basic geographic unit. Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography, geology and climate.

Classification of Climate and Identifying Climate Regions :

Climate Regions:

Low latitude :

• Equatorial Rainforests
• Tropical Monsoon Climate
• Tropical Savannah Type of Climate
• Tropical Deserts or Arid Type of Climate

Mid Latitude:

• Mediterranean Climate
• China Type Climate or Humid Sub Tropical Climate
• Marine West European Type Climate

High Latitude:

• Taiga or Sub-Arctic
• Tundra
• Ice Sheet
• Highland or Mountain Type

Low-latitude regions:

Tropical Monsoon Climate:

• SW India and SE Asia, SW Africa, NE and SE Brazil, northern parts of Australia, parts of tlapan]
• Summer temperature around 27°C to 32°C, winter temperature 15°C to 24°C j
• Rainfall, 250 to 2500 mm, orographic rainfall (India)
• High annual range of temperature
• Less biodiversity as compared to tropical forests
• Iron rich soils in high rainfall zones
• Large hooved leaf eaters and carnivores
• Paddy, rice agriculture
• 10° to 30° N and S

Tropical Savannah Climate:

• Herding and animal husbandry
• Tall and thick grass (Elephant grass), scattered drought resistant trees, broad towards the apex, scrub
• Between 10° to 20° N and S latitudes
• Summer temperatures around 35°C, winter temperatures around 24°C
• Average rainfall of 250-1000 mm
• Grazing more common, large herbivores, carnivores and scavengers
• Parts of peninsular India, rain-shadow zone in Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, parts of Mizoram, Congo, south-central Africa, llanos of Venezuela, Campos of Brazil

Tropical Deserts or Arid type Climate:

• Xerophytic vegetation
• Between 20° to 30° latitude in both hemispheres
• Small nocturnal, burrowing animals
• Badaun, (Sahara), Bushmen (Kalahari), Aborigines (Australia)
• Agriculture practised near oases
• Summer temperature around 30°C to 45°C, winter temperature around 20°C to 25°C highest diurnal range, highest day-time temperatures
• Precipitation less than 200mm. Low or no humidity
• Western coasts of all continents, parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan and south west Haryana, Iran, interior parts of Asia, coastal Chile, Peru, south-west Africa, interior Mexico, Baja California, North Africa, Namibia and parts of US.
• Saline soil

Mediterranean Climate:

Mid-latitude regions :

• Olives, grapes, vegetables, citrus fruits, animal husbandry
• Western Coastal region between 30° to 40° N and S
• Tourism, cinema industries
• 500 to 1000 mm winter rainfall, foggy coasts
• Coniferous vegetation in high altitudes, grass in areas of low rainfall
• Scrubs, leaves are evergreen, hard, thick leathery, usually small
• Central California, borders of Mediterranean Sea, Cape Town, Southern and SW Australia, Central part of Chile
• Mild, moist winters, temperature around 10°C to 14°C warm, dry summers, temperature around 21°C to 27°C quite sunny, high summer

China type Climate or Humid Sub – tropical Climate:

• East coast location between 20° and 40° N and S
• Mixed forests, grasslands, pines in higher altitudes.
• Rice, wheat, corn, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits.
• Humid in summer, cyclonic storms in winter
• Precipitation between 600 to 2500 mm
• High humidity, hot summers, frost in winter
• Warmest months above 10°C, coldest between 0°C and 18°C
• SE USA, SE South America, coastal SE South Africa, Eastern Australia, Eastern Asia from through South  China to Southern Japan, Easter island in Chile

High-latitude region:

Tundra Climate:

Ice Sheet:

Highland or Mountain type:

• Grazing, pastures, terrace cultivation
• Laterite soils
• Tourism
• Widely over Earth
• Grazing, pastures, terrace cultivation
• Coniferous in higher reaches, tropical deciduous to evergreen, in lower reaches
• Orographic rainfall, snowfall in higher reaches
• The climate depends on altitude, location on the leeward or windward side
• Mountains in Asia, central Europe, western North, and South America

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 13 India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 13 India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

India and Sri Lanka:
The history of Sri Lanka and India has remained close-knit from ancient times. ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, ‘Chullavamsa’ are the three texts that tell us about the Indian and Sri Lankan dynasties, their mutual relations and the historical events, in the times before and after Gautama Buddha. These texts are known as ‘Vamsagranthas’.

According to the Vamsagranthas, the first kingdom of Sri Lanka was established in the 6th century C.E. and was known as ‘Tambapanni (Tamrapanni)’. Another name of the kingdom was ‘Rajrat’. Greek historians have mentioned it as ‘Taprobane’.

The festival known as ‘Unduvapa Poya’ is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka, on the full moon in the month of December, in the memory of Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.

The important cultural places in Sri Lanka: Anuradhpur – Mihinthale: Thera Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed at Mihinthale near Anuradhpaur. It facilitated the establishment and spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Important Stupas at Anuradhpur – Mihinthale: ‘Kantakchetiya’ is one of the earliest stupas at Mihinthale.

An inscription near the stupa mentions that the revenue collected from a nearby tank and the surrounding land was reserved as a gift for the maintenance of this stupa. The stupa erected on the remains (Shareerik Dhatu/asthi) of Thera Mahinda at Mihinthale, is known as Ambasthal Thupa’.

Pulatthinagar (Polonnaruwa): The city of Polonnaruwa is mentioned in Chullvamasa by the name, ‘Pulatthinagar’. In the 10th century C.E. the Chola emperor Rajraja I attacked Sri Lanka and razed Anuradhpur completely. Then he established his capital at Polonnaruwa. He renamed Polannaruwa as ‘Jananathmangalam’ and built a Shiva temple there.

Dambulla and Sigiriya: The caves at Dambulla in Sri Lanka are declared as World Cultural Heritage. There are images of Gautama Buddha and the Bodhisattvas inside the caves. The roofs of five caves at Dambulla are decorated with paintings.

There is an enormous rock in the mountains near the city of Dambulla. A fort and a palace were built on this rock. At its entrance, a huge image of a lion was carved in the rock. The place was named ‘Sigiriya’ after this lion. Sigiriya murals are compared with the murals at Ajanta.

India and Southeast Asia:
There are very few references in the Indian literature to the Indian settlements and kingdoms in Southeast Asia. However, the court records of Chinese emperors provide considerable information in this regard. The ancient Indian literature refers to the land of Southeast Asia as ‘Suvarabhumi’ (the Land of Gold). The trading relations between India and Southeast Asia began in the 1st century B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century C.E.

The term ‘Southeast Asia’ was coined in the times of the Second World War The Buddhist texts mention a ‘Suvarnabhumi’.

The scholars divide Southeast Asia into two parts based on its geographic features:

• The Mainland: This region is also known as Indo-China. It comprises the countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also the western region of Malaysia.
• The Maritime region: It comprises the Malaya peninsula, the eastern region of Malaysia as well as Indonesia.

Myanmar: ‘Myanmar’ is a neighbouring country of India, adjacent to its northeast border. It was earlier known as ‘Brahmdesh’. In the 2nd century B.C.E. There were city-states known as ‘Pyu’ in the north and central regions of Myanmar. Some new Pyu cities came into existence at a later period. Among them the cities of ‘Halin’ and ‘Shrikshetra’ were important.

Thailand: The ancient Thai people referred to their country as ‘Mueng Thai’. However, it was known in the world as ‘Siam’. In the 20th century, its name was changed to ‘Thailand’. Thailand was ruled from the 6th to the 11th century by ‘Mon’ people. At that time, it was known as ‘Dvaravati’. Indian culture was introduced and spread in Thailand in the ‘Dvaravati’ period. Th.n Indian traditions of sculpture, literature, ethics, judicial science, etc. had a great role in shaping up the Mon culture.

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia:
In the colonial period Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, these three countries together were known as ‘Indo-China’. During the 8th – 12th century C.E. the Mon and Khmer people ruled over Cambodia. Khmer empire originated in Cambodia.

a. Funan:
This was a kingdom in Vietnam which existed in the Delta region of the river Mekong. Funan is known mainly through the Chinese records. The ‘Han’ dynasty ruled in China in the 3rd century C.E. When the rule of Han dynasty was ended, China disintegrated into three parts.

Because of it, the southern kingdom of China was not left with any alternative path to reach the Silk Route Hence, the king of the southern kingdom sent some people to explore the sea route. They found a kingdom in the delta region of the Mekong. They named it ‘Funan’.

b. Champa:
‘Champa’ was an ancient kingdom in the coastal region of Vietnam. Several Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script have been found there. Champa was named after the ‘Cham’ tribe. The names of the cities in Champa were ‘Indrapur’, ‘Amaravati’, ‘Vijay’, ‘Kauthara’ and ‘Panduranga’. The city of Vijay was the capital of Champa kingdom.

c. Laos:
Laos is a landlocked country. The population of Laos is mainly composed of the ‘Lao’ people who came to Laos from southern China. The name of the kingdom of Laos was ‘Lao Sang’. This kingdom was in existence during 14th-18th century. Lao Sang was attacked by Thailand in the 19th century. Lao Sang could not survive the attack. In the latter half of the 19th century, the French established their administrative centre in Vientiane, the capital of Laos.

d. Cambodia:
Cambodia was known as ‘Kambujadesha’ in ancient times. Its history is known from the inscriptions installed in the precincts of its temples. These inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Khmer languages. The first kingdom, established in Cambodia was known by the name of ‘China’s.

The people who established Chenla were known as ‘Khmer’. The influence of Indian culture in Cambodia dates back to the Chenla period. The kingdom of Chenla was established by Jayavarman II. He was coronated in 802 C.E. His capital’s name was ‘Hariharalaya’.

Malaysia and Indonesia:
Before the arrival of the Europeans, there have been three kingdoms in Malaysia. The ‘Vayu Purana’ mentions Malay peninsula as ‘Malaydvipa’. The Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing/ Yi-Jing (7th century C.E.) had visited the ‘Malayu’ kingdom. Ptolemy has mentioned Malayu as ‘Maleu Kolon’ and ‘Golden Chersonese’ (golden peninsula). An inscription in the Brihadishvara temple in Tanjore mentions it as ‘Malaiyur’. Malayu was one of the kingdoms conquered by the Chola King Rajendra. The Chinese court records also mention ‘Malayu’.

a. Srivijaya: This kingdom proved to be more powerful among all kingdoms who competed with each other. This kingdom originated in Sumatra.

Malayu and other neighbouring kingdoms who were weaker than Srivijaya were gradually merged into it. In the 11th century C.E. Srivijya became weaker while facing the Chola invasion. In the 14th century C.E. ‘Parameswaran’ alias ‘Eskandar Shah’, the last king of Malayu established the first Sultanate of Malaya.

b. Majapahita: In the 13th century C.E., in Eastern Java, arose a kingdom known as ‘Majapahita’. This was the last kingdom, with Indian cultural traits. The name of the founder king of Majapahita was, ‘Vijaya’. King Vijaya was successful in sacking Kublai Khan from Java.

c. Shailendra: According to some Indian historians the Shailendra kings hailed from India. However, this opinion is not accepted by all historians. The Shailendras reached the peak of their political power in the 8th – 9th centuries. The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism.

d. Matram: There was a kingdom called Mataram contemporary to Shailendra. Its founder king’s name was Sanjaya. During the period of Matram kingdom, ‘Mahabharata’ and ‘Harivamsha’ were translated in Japanese language. Poems in ancient Japanese language are composed in Sanskrit metres like ‘Shardulvikridita’. Poems composed in metres are known as ‘Kakvin’.

Glossary:

→ Precinct – A part of a town/city that has a particular use, where vehicles are not allowed.

→ Landlocked – Completely surrounded by land.

→ Supremacy – The state of being the most powerful.

→ Candi – A Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion

Agents of Erosion:

1. Running Water(River)
2. Sea Waves
3. Wind
4. Glaciers
5. Ground Water

→ Agents of erosion cause various processes when they pick up, move and deposit rock particles. These processes lead to erosional and depositional landforms.

Processes of Erosion:

River-

• Attrition
• Solution
• Downcutting
• Drilling
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Sea Waves-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Solution
• Lateral erosion

Wind-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Deflation

Glacier-

• Plucking
• Abrasion
• Downcutting
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Transportation :

• Traction : The material acquired by the agents is transported by rolling, pushing and dragging along the surface.
• Saltation : Often the rock materials move forward by leaps and bounds through this process.
• Suspension : Fine light material is carried along with water or air in the upper layer.
• Solution : The material is carried in water in a dissolved state.

Processes of Transportation :

River-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Sea Waves-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Wind-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension

Glacier-
Traction

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Erosion :

• Plucking : The process by which moving ice exerts pressure on majority portion of rocks on bed or along the bank.
• Abrasion : It involves the scratching and polishing of the surface or bedrock by the particles which are moving onto it.
• Attrition: It is when rocks and pebbles bump into each other and break up into smaller fragments.
• Solution : It is when certain types of rocks get eroded as a result of acids in the sea or river water.
• Deflation : The particles which are loosened on the surface are blown away by the wind.
• Drilling : Bedload moves along the running water. As and when this flow encounters an obstacle due to relief on the bed or joints in the bed, the flow tends to develop a circular pattern. This leads to development of a whirl.
• Downcutting : Also called downward erosion is a process of hydraulic action that deepens the channel of a stream or valley by removing material from the stream’s bed or the valley’s floor.
• Headward erosion : It is the backward erosion by river in the source region.
• Lateral erosion : It is the erosion that occurs on the sides of valleys of a river or glacier.

Agents of erosion and landforms :
Factor affecting formation of landforms – climate, type of rocks, intensity of erosion, slope of land and obstacles.

River as an Agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Gorges and Canyons
• V-shaped valley
• Cliffs
• Waterfalls
• Rapids
• Potholes

2. Depositional Features

• Alluvial fans
• Meanders
• Oxbow lakes
• Flood plains
• Natural levees
• Islands
• Deltas
• Estuaries

Sea Water as an Agent of Erosion:

Erosional Features-

• Sea cliffs
• Sea caves
• Sea arch
• Sea stack
• Wave cut platforms

Depositional Features-

• Sea beach
• Lagoon
• Headlands
• Sand spits

Conditions necessary for wind erosion :

• Aridity – In such areas, rate of evaporation is greater than rate of precipitation.
• Sparse vegetation cores or absence of trees.
• Presence of dry loose materials at the surface.
• A wind velocity high enough to pick up and move sediments.

Wind as an agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Feature

1. Erosional Features:

• Deflation Hallows
• Ventifacts
• Mushroom Rocks
• Yardangs

2. Depositional Feature

• Loess
• Barchans
• Sand Dunes

Karst topography needs three important factors to develop:

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Active movement of underground water
3. Joints

Work of Ground Water:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Sink Holes
• Caves

2. Depositional Features:

• Stalactite
• Stalagmite
• Columnor Pillars

Work of Glaciers:

1. Erosional Features
2. De positional Features

1. Erosional Features:

• Roche mountonnees
• Cirque
• Arete
• Horn, Matterhorn
• U-Shaped valley, hanging valley

2. De positional Features:

• Drumlin
• Eskers
• Erratic rock

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China

Trade and Cultural Relations in the Ancient times:
It is very significant that the Indians travelling or migrating to other countries never tried to impose their culture, religions and political rule on the local people. Wherever they went, they had cultural contact and exchange with the native people and it resulted into the enrichment of the native cultures. The spread of Indian culture in the nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist religion.

The Indian trade with distant lands is mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’, Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, etc. These texts narrate many stories of the sea travels and adventures of the Indian merchants.

India and Gandhara (Afghanistan and Pakistan):
It is apparent that geographically Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably situated on the trade route that linked India and Central Asia. It had close cultural connections with India from the ancient period of Janapadas till the introduction of Islam. Whether it was the invaders from the Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out by Emperor Ashoka, or the Chinese monks travelling to India, all had to pass through Afghanistan.

Emperor Ashoka’s Period: We have seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka mentions the names of Greek kings, who were his contemporaries. It also mentions that people in their kingdoms were following the path of morality as outlined to his message of Dhammavijaya. Among these kingdoms, it was included v the kingdom of Kamboja in Afghanistan.

Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post Kushana Period: Kanishka’s empire had spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir in the north and further to Central Asia. Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha (Begram) was an additional capital of the Kushanas, which was located on the silk route at a vantage point. The trade route from Afghanistan to China was under the rule of Kushanas.

The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’ near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another important centre of Buddhism. There are several remains of stupas and viharas scattered over the place. The sculptures found around the stupas are excellent specimens of Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i- Bahi’ is another important place, which is enlisted as ‘World Cultural Heritage.

The government of Afghanistan, with the help of UNESCO and various associations from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland, etc. is working to restore this World Cultural Heritage.

India and China:
The route that links Asia and Europe was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer. The Silk Route runs more than 6000 kilometres. One may have an impression that the Silk Route is an unbroken highway. However, in reality, this route is an intricate web of major and minor lines bifurcating and crossing each other.

It was in the 1st century C.E. that Buddhism began to spread from India to China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China in this period had expanded its empire up to Central Asia. They dominated the Silk Route Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the second king of the Han dynasty had sent his representatives to India.

Glossary:

→ Pagoda – A Buddhist temple in India or South-East Asia.

→ Vantage Point – A place from which you have a good view of something.

→ Sangharama – The residential complex built for the bhikkhus.

→ Mural – A piece of art that is painted on walls.