Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 14 Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 14 Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

Political conditions in India:
After the decline of Harshavardhan’s empire many big and small kingdoms came into being in North India. There was constant struggle for power among these kingdoms. There was no power, who could have control over the rulers of these kingdoms. The Turkish invaders took advantage of this political instability of India in the 13th century.

During this period many petty rulers existed such as Chauhans of Rajasthan, Pratiharas, and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj, Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Parmars of Malwa, Kalachuris of Gorakhpur, Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh), Chalukyas (Solanki) of Gujarat, Palas of Bengal etc. They did resist the invasions of the Turks individually but they did not unite for it.

Arab and Turkish invasions:
Muhammad bin Qasim of the Ummayad dynasty attacked Sindh in the year 712 C.E. He conquered. the entire region from Sindh to Multan. After Muhammad bin Qasim, the Arabs rule in India grew unstable. In India, Islamic rule was established by the Turks.

They attacked India several times. None of the rulers in India could successfully resist them. The Turks looted enormous wealth from India. Many kingdoms were destroyed and Islamic rule was established.

Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Devgiri:
After Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish came on the throne of Delhi. After his death, his daughter Razia became the Sultan of Delhi. After Razia, Balban was an important Sultan who ruled Delhi. After the end of the slave dynasty, the Khalji dynasty came to power.

Alauddin Khalji attacked Yadavas of Devgiri and collected enormous wealth. Devgiri was a prosperous city in the South. King Ramadevarai Yadava was ruling over Devgiri. Alauddin attacked Devgiri in 1296 C.E.

In face of the sudden attack Ramadevarai took shelter in the fort of Devgiri (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the fort. He plundered the city. There was an acute shortage of food in the fort. Finally, Ramadevarai had to sign a treaty with him. Alauddin conquered nearby provinces of Devgiri as well, and collected a large booty as part of the treaty.

Trade and Commerce:
Agriculture was the main occupation of majority of people during the Sultanate period. Agricultural production and its revenue were the main sources of revenue. Along with it, textile industry also flourished on large scale. Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, Devgiri were the main centres of textile industry during this period. The cotton cloth was exported on a large scale from Bengal to Gujarat. The textile exports included muslin, linen cloth, satin and jari cloth.

Urbanisation:
The rise and fall of the cities depend on its political and cultural graph of events. The process of urbanisation is associated mainly with political and economic development. The rulers play an important role in the settling and development of a city. According to the Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun, trade gains momentum as a result of conducive policies of the ruler. Some cities gain importance as administrative centres while others gain importance as industrial centres.

Art, architecture, literature, social life:
The Sufi saints have greatly contributed to the development of Indian music. The followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti used to present ‘Qawwali’ every evening in the court of Delhi. It. became a popular form of vocal music. Hussain Shah Sharukhi developed the Khayal style of vocal music The Islamic rulers built huge mosques, dargahs, and tombs.

It presents a beautiful blend of Iranian and Indian architecture. Qutubuddin Aibak was the first ruler to have started building monuments in this style, which is known as Indo-Islamic architecture. He built the ‘Quwwat-i-Islam’ mosque at Delhi.

Later, many buildings were built in the precincts of Kutub Minar. Among them are the ‘Alai Darwaza’ and Jamalkhan mosque built by Alauddin Khalji. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Fatehabad and Hisaf-i-Firuz. He built many forts, bridges, dharamshalas and canals. The buildings built by the Sultans of Tughlaq dynasty were huge but simple.

Vijaynagar Empire:
At the end of 13th century, Alauddin Khalji’s invasions, the coffers of local rulers in South India were emptied to a great extent. This was the time when Harihara and Bukka established new kingdom of‘Vijaynagar’ in 1336 C.E.

During the rule of king Krishnadevaraya, the kingdom expanded into an empire spreading from South Konkan in the west to Vishakhapatnam in the East and Krishna river in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. Krishnadevaraya wrote a text entitled, ‘Amuktamalyada’ which is about the State and Policy.

Bahamani Kingdom:
In 1347 C.E. some of the Sardars in south revolted against Sultan Muhammad Tughluq under the leadership of Hasan Gangu. They captured the fort of Daulatabad. Hasan Gangu took up the title, ‘Alauddin Bahamatshah’ and established the Bahamani kingdom.

During the period of Bahamani rule, the Prime Minister (Vazir) Mahmud Gawan strengthened the kingdom. He paid the soldiers with fixed salary instead of Jahagirs (land grants). Gawan was interested in mathematics and medicine.

After the death of Mahmud Gawan, the Bahamani court was divided into different factions. This led to the disintegration of the Bahamani kingdom into five small ruling houses – Imadshahi of Varhad, Baridshahi of Bidar, Adilshahi of Bijapur, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar and Qutubshahi of Golconda.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 9 Economic Policy of India Since 1991 students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 9 Economic Policy of India Since 1991

→ Objectives of Economic Policy of 1991

• Plunge Indian economy to arena of Globalisation.
• Bring down rate of inflation.
• Correct the disequilibrium in balance of payments.
• Acquire higher economic growth rate.
• Build sufficient Foreign Exchange Reserves.
• Establish international trade relations without any restrictions.
• Increase the participation of private sector.
• Achieve economic stabilisation and reduce fiscal deficit.

→ Features of the Economic Policy of 1991:

• Delicensing
• Abolition of Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act
• Encouragement to small sector
• Encouraging Foreign Investment – (FDI)
• Reducing role of Public Sector
• Trade Liberalisation – SEZ and AEZ
• Reforms in Insurance Sector – IRDA
• Reforms in Financial Sector

→ Components of New Economic Policy:

1. Liberalization
2. Privatization
3. Globalization

→ Liberalization — Economic freedom or freedom for economic decision.
Measures Taken For Liberalization:

1. Flexibility of Interest rate
2. Freedom for expansion of industries
3. Abolition of Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices
4. Reforms in FERA
5. Investments in infrastructure
6. Encouragement to foreign technology
7. SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India)

→ Privatisation→ Privatisation means transfer of ownership from public to private sector.
Measures Taken For Privatisation:

• Disinvestment
• Dereservation policy
• Establishment of BIFR (Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction)
• Creation of National Renewal Board (NRB)
• Navratna Status

→ Navratnas:

1. IOC : Indian Oil Corporation
2. ONGC : Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
3. HPCL: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation ltd
4. BPCL: Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd
5. IPCL: Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd
6. VSNL : Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd
7. BHEL: Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd
8. SAIL : Steel Authority of India Ltd
9. NTPC : National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd

→ Miniratna Government Of India:

Category – I

Conditions:

• Public sector company having made profit in last 3 years continuously.
• Pre-tax profit- Rs 30 crores or more in atleast one of the 3 years.

Category – II

Conditions:

• Public sector company having made profit for last 3 years.
• Company to have positive net worth.

→ Maharatna Companies:
Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs)
introduced in 2009

Objectives:
To expand operations of mega CPSEs and make them emerge as global
giants like Indian Multinational Companies

→ Globalization:

• Globalization means the creation of global economy. OR
• Integrating an economy with the world economy.

→ Measures Taken For Globalization:

1. Removal of quantitative restrictions
2. Encouragement to Foreign Capital
3. Convertibility of Rupee
4. Foreign collaboration
5. Long term trade policy
6. Encouragement to Exports

→ Evaluation of Economic Policy of 1991 :
Major Achievements:

1. Revolution in IT Sector
2. Solves the problem of scarcity
3. Improvement in Financial Facilities
4. Diversification of cropping pattern
5. Improvement in educational standards
6. Increase in Exports

→ Major Failures In Economic Policy 1991:

1. Lack of Self Sufficiency
2. Unemployment
3. Adverse effect on domestic market
4. Neglects Welfare Aspect
5. Affects poor farmers
6. Unhealthy Competition

Word Meaning:

crisis – time of severe difficulty; socialistic – owned by society as a whole, momentum – gained, unshackle cobweb – set free, bureaucratic – government administrative, plunge – jump, disequilibrium – lack of stability in relation to demand and supply, fiscal deficit – total expenditure is in excess of total revenue, delicensing – cancellation of government license, strategic – long term, hazardous – dangerous, merger – to combine, sick – serious problem suffered by organisation or company, abolished – stopped, era – period, retrenched – to cut down, globalisation – working world wide, integrating – combining, barriers – obstacles, quantitative restrictions – to stop something in terms of quantity, tariff rates – tax rate, collaboration – to associate, revolution – to bring major change, diversification – to change the line of business/to expand, scarcity – short supply, self sufficiency – to be independent, cheaper – low in price, unnoticed – not observed, exhorbitant – extremely high, back seat – to take no interest/less importance, compelled – to force to do something.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality

Meaning Of Personality:
The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which was used to refer to masks worn by actors during a stage performance, Thus, the meaning of personality was interpreted as ‘projected behaviour’ of an individual.

According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustments to the environment.”

Factors Affecting Personality:
Personality is shaped by biological factors like heredity and endocrine glands and by psychosocial factors like family, peer groups, school and culture.

Heredity – It implies the genetic inheritance of an individual. Heredity affects the physical characteristics, such as height, physique, etc. It also influences the self-concept which in turn influences personality.

Endocrine glands – Personality is shaped by endocrine glands like pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads, etc. Over secretion or under secretion of hormones produced by these glands can adversely affect our personality.

Family – As the first agency of socialization, the family exerts a strong influence on personality. Aspects of family such as family structure, atmosphere, and relationships, family interactions and ‘ childrearing practices influence personality, for e.g., if parents show rejection or overprotection, etc., towards the child, it may leads to low self-esteem and adverse effects on the personality.

Peer group – It refers to individuals of the same age group, e.g., classmates or sharing the same interests, e.g., members of a sports club. Influence of the peer group is most noticed in adolescence since it serves as a reference group.

The influence of peer group on the person may be positive such as developing healthy gender attitudes, skills of communication, etc., or it may be negative e.g., developing aggressive tendencies, prejudices, etc.

School – Various aspects of school such as teaching-learning process, academic and co-curricular facilities, role of the teachers, school location, management and discipline, etc., influence the child’s personality, for e.g., teachers who are well qualified, creative, build a rapport with the students, tend to motivate students and help to develop a good personality.

Mass media – It includes print media such as newspapers, audio-visual media such as T.V., and new media such as Internet, etc. Media is a source of information, education, entertainment and even socialization. It has a considerable effect on our value system, behaviour patterns and personality. However, excessive dependence on media may lead to egocentrism, poor academic performance, sleep disturbance, etc.

Cultural factors – Culture refers to the customs, values and social behaviour of a particular society. Every culture has its own set of beliefs, norms, expectations, etc., which influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of its members.

Perspectives Of Studying Personality:

Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality:
Carl Jung classified individuals into introverts and extroverts, based on the characteristics exhibited by them.

Characteristics of introverts are :

• they tend to look within themselves for stimulation
• they are shy, reserved, avoid social interactions
• they choose careers and hobbies that do not involve much social contact
• they may be sensitive to criticism.

Characteristics of extroverts are:

• they depend on external stimulation and evaluate themselves based on impressions of others
• they tend to be outgoing, cheerful, optimistic
• they choose careers and hobbies that bring them in contact with others
• they tend to be enthusiastic, and full of energy.

NOTE: In real life, most individuals tend to exhibit a blend of traits of introverts and extroverts, i.e., ambiverts.

Allport’s Theory of Personality:
A trait is a relatively enduring and consistent way of thinking, feeling and acting. It is some distinctive characteristic of the person that leads him/her to behave in more or less consistent ways across situations and over a period of time.
Allport categorised traits as :

Cardinal Traits – It is a single trait that dominates the individual’s personality. Every action of the person can be traced to the influence of this trait, for e.g., in case of Gandhiji honesty was the cardinal trait, in case of Napoleon it was ambition.

Central Traits – These traits are ‘core’ or ‘basic’ characteristics that form the building blocks of personality. There are about 5-10 traits such as sensitivity, sociability, diligence, etc., that can best describe an individual’s personality.

Secondary Traits – These traits play a minor role in personality as they appear only in specific situations or under specific circumstances. They are sometimes related to preferences or attitudes.

Five-factor Model of Personality (OCEAN):
The Big Five Theory, based on the trait perspective was proposed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
The five broad trait factors are –

Openness to Experience – People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, imaginative, appreciative of art, sensitive to beauty. They sometimes tend to think and act in nonconforming, adventurous ways.

Conscientiousness – It concerns the way in which people control, regulate and direct their impulses. People high in conscientiousness are hardworking, disciplined, responsible, dependable, etc., while those low on conscientiousness tend to be careless, unorganised, spontaneous, undisciplined, etc.

Extroversion – People high on this trait are assertive, talkative, sociable, enthusiastic, etc., while those low on extroversion tend to be shy, reserved, avoid social interactions, etc.

Agreeableness – It refers to the ability of a person to get along with others and show a concern for social harmony. People high on this trait tend to be friendly, cooperative, generous and believe that people are basically decent and trustworthy.

Neuroticism – It refers to a tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression more intensely and for longer periods than most people. Those who score high on neuroticism tend to be irritable, fearful, emotionally unstable and interpret ordinary situations as threatening and hopeless.

Measurement Of Personality:
Personality can be assessed using techniques such as Self Report Measures (Inventories), Behavioural Analysis Techniques and Projective Techniques.

Behavioural Analysis Techniques:
Behavioural analysis (techniques) such as Interview and Observation can provide information about an individual’s personality in a variety of situations.

Interview – It is a process in which the interviewer collects information about the personality of an interviewee by asking him/her specific questions. The main types of interview depending on the purpose of assessment are Structured interview and unstructured interview

Structured interview – The number, type and sequence of questions to be asked in the interview are pre-determined. The answers expected are also specific. This type of interview is used where exact quantification is required, for e.g., industrial psychologists use structured interviews to select employees for a job.

Unstructured interview – The type and sequence of questions to be asked by the interviewer are not pre-determined. Detailed answers can be given and scoring is often subjective. It is employed by clinical psychologists, counsellors, etc.

Observation – The types of observation include Naturalistic observation, Laboratory observation, Participant observation, Non-participant observation, etc. This method is useful only when there is a trained observer, clear objectives and adequate guidelines to carry out the observations.

Self-Report Measures (Inventories):
The individual provides information about his/her personality by responding to statements questions on the inventory, for e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PFQ), etc. Responses are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms that are developed for the test.

Projective Techniques:
Projective techniques emerged from the psychoanalytic perspective. The individual responds freely to relatively unstructured or ambiguous stimuli/material. It is assumed that individuals project their own personality onto these stimuli, often revealing personal conflicts, coping styles, etc. Projective techniques cannot be scored in an objective manner.

They use various materials like ink-blots, ambiguous pictures, incomplete sentences, word associations, etc. Main projective techniques include Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Tests, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Sentence Completion Test, etc.

Glossary:

→  Cardinal traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to a trait that is so powerful and pervasive that almost every act of the individual is influenced by and can be traced back to it.

→ Central traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to relatively general characteristics of an individual that apply to most circumstances.

→ Extrovert – An individual who is social, outgoing and openly expressive prefers social interactions.

→ Introvert – An individual who is reserved, quiet and prefers working independently.

→ Neuroticism – One of the personality factors in the Big Five Factor Model characterised by the tendency to experience negative emotions such as nervousness, tension and worry.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in research.

→ Trait approach – According to this perspective every individual possess specific characteristics and patterns of behaviour that shape personality.

→ Type approach – According to this perspective individuals are classified into groups based on certain characteristics which shape personality.

→ Rating Scale – An instrument in which a respondent gives a numeric value (i.e.rates) to an object or stimulus.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research study that consists of a series of questions that is used to collect information from the participants.
→ Projective methods – They are techniques which use vague or ambiguous stimuli which allow the individual to reveal their personality through their unique responses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 8 Poverty in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 8 Poverty in India

→ Poverty:

1. Denial of Opportunities
2. Socio – economic Phenomenon
3. Deprivation of basic needs
4. Social exclusion

→ Poverty in India During British Period:

1. Economic drain of resources
2. Recurrence of famines
3. Decline of handicraft and cottage industries
4. Oppressive economic policies

→ Policy Measures Undertaken By India Government:

1. Economic Planning
2. Economic Reforms
3. Antipoverty Programme
   → (Garibi hatao)

→ Meaning Of Poverty:

1. Conventional
2. Material Dimensions Poverty

1. Conventional:
Unable to fulfill the basic needs of life i.e. (food, clothing and shelter)

2. Material Dimensions Poverty:

Deprivation in terms of Material Dimensions
e.g.:
food, clothing, shelter, health,
education, road connectivity,
electricity, access to safe drinking
water and sanitation

Deprivation in terms of Non-Material Dimensions
e.g.:
Socio-discrimination

→ Concept Of Poverty:

Absolute Poverty:

• Measured in terms of minimum calorie intake.
• In rural area — per capita daily calorie requirement is 2400 for a person.
• In urban area — per capita daily calorie requirement is 2100 for a person.
• Found in developing and under developing count ries.
• Can be eradicated.

Relative Poverty:

• Measured in terms of differences in the levels of income, wealth, consumption economic inactivity.
• Universal phenomenon.
• Found in all the countries of the world.
• Cannot be completely eradicated.

→ Poverty line

• It is as imaginary line that divides the poor and non-poor.
• Determined in terms of per capita household expenditure.
• As per task Force on Eliminating Poverty constituted by NUT Aayog it is defined as “the threshold expenditure”

OR
the amount necessary to purchase a basket of goods and services that are considered necessary to satisfy human needs at socially acceptable levels.

→ Objectives Of Poverty Line:

1. Determine population living above poverty line (APL) and below poverty line (BPL)
2. Identify the poor on the basis of household consumption expenditure
3. Tracking poverty in a region over a time period and comparing
4. Provide estimate of required expenditure on poverty alleviation programmes

→ Income Pyramid:

→ Types Of Poverty:

1. Rural Poverty
Deprivation of basic needs among section of people living in the villages

Found Among:

• small and marginal farmers.
• agricultural labourers
• contractual labourers
• landless labourers

Reasons:

• low agricultural productivity
• drought
• poor rural infrastructure
• illiteracy
• lack of alternative jobs
• rural indebtedness

Urban Poverty:
Absence of basic needs among section of people living in town and cities

Reasons:

• spillover effects of migration
• lack of affordable housing
• illiteracy
• slow industrial growth

Effects

• growth of slums
• informal sector
• creates law and order problems

→ Causes Of Poverty :

• Other factors
• Population explosion
• Slow economic growth
• Vicious Circle of Poverty
• Unemployment and Underemployment
• Regional Imbalance
• Economic inequalities
• Inflation
• Inaccessibility to infrastructural facilities

→ Vicious Circle Of Poverty:

• Low investments
• Low production
• Less employment
• Low National income
• Low per capita income
• Low savings
• Low capital formation

→ Effects Of Poverty:

1. Retards economic progress
2. Low national income and per capita income
3. Environmental deterioration
4. Low standard of living
5. Misery and economic hardships
6. Low savings, investments and capital formation
7. Misallocation of resources
8. Concentration of economic power and unequal opportunities
9. Rise of anti social and anti national activities.
10. Conflict between rich and poor

→ Measures To Eradicate Poverty:

1. Control of population
2. Nationalization of Banks
3. Agriculture
4. Progressive Tax Measures
5. Rural works
6. Education
7. Rural industrialization
8. Affordable Housing
9. Minimum wages
10. Health Facilities
11. Public distribution system
12. Skill development and Self Employment

→ 17th October is observed as International Day for Eradication of poverty.

Word Meaning:

phenomenon – a situation that happens, imaginary – unreal, perceived – to consider, threshold – beginning, exclusion – excluding, trapped – shut in, deprivation – to lack something, miseries – hardships/sufferings, denial – not having something, drain – getting exhausted, racial – relating to race of individual, recurrence
– occurring of event again and again, conventional – ordinary, emerged – appear, civil liberties – individual freedom for betterment of society, starvation – lack of food, misallocation – wrong distribution, multifaceted
– many features, vulnerable – risk, calories – energy value of foods, nationalization – transfer of branch of industry from private to state ownership, spillover – over flow, beverages – liquid refreshment to drink, – conveyance – transport, bottlenecks – obstruction, vicious – dangerous, rehabilitation – restoring/ resettlement, correlate – to connect, enrolment – to seek admission.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology

Introduction:

• Human behaviour is full of diversity.
• Psychology studies different forms of emotions, behaviour and moods of human beings.

History of Psychology:

• Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural aspects of mankind.
• The word Psychology is derived from Greek words Psyche and Logos.
• Plato believed that knowledge is innate.
• John Locke thought that each child is born as an ‘empty slate’.
• Wilhelm Wundt introduced the term ‘conscious experience’ and established first Psychological laboratory.
• Dr. Sigmund Freud defined Psychology as the study of the unconscious.
• Latest definition of Psychology is ‘The study of human behaviour and mental processes.

Study of behaviour:

• John B. Watson redefined Psychology as a Science of human behaviour.
• John B. Watson developed the S-O-R Model.

Study of Cognition:

1. During 1950-1960s, focus of Psychology shifted to cognitive processes.
2. Cognitive Psychology is the study of processes like perception, thinking, memory and other higher-order activities.

Psychology in India:
During 1916 to 1989 there was Professional development of Psychology in India.

Psychology: Indian Perspective:

• Upanishads: Explain the self and personality structure with the help of kosha.
• Five Koshas: Annamaya kosha, Pranmaya kosha, Manomaya kosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha and Anandmaya kosha.
• Ayurveda has given 3 types of Doshas and Gunas.
• Three Doshas known as Kapha, Vata and Pitta determine Prakruti (characteristics) of human beings.
• Three types of Gunas: Sattva Guna, Rajas Guna, Tamas Guna explain human temperament.
• Sage Patanjali explained a deep thought about Psychology in ‘Yogsutra’ and developed the
  theory of ‘Ashtangyoga’.
• Eight aspects of Ashtangyoga are Yama, Niyama, Aasana, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi.

Goals of Psychology:
The four main goals of Psychology are:

1. Describe: What is happening?
2. Explanation: Why it is happening?
3. Prediction: What will happen next?
4. Control: How can it be changed?

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes Chapter 5 Members of a Company students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 5 Members of a Company

Meaning of Member-

• Member means a person whose name is entered in the Register of Members of Company and also includes holder of equity shares as per the records of Depository.
• Two pre requisites for person to be a member.
  • agreement in writing to take shares of company.
  • registration of the person so agreeing in Register of Members of the Company.

Member v/s Shareholder-

(i) Member without being a shareholder

• Signatories to the Memorandum of Association
• Company Limited by Guarantee Amount
• Membership by Acquiescence / Estoppel
• Transfer of shares
• On death of a Member / By Succession / Transmission of shares
• On Insolvency of a Member.

(ii) Shareholder without being a Member

• The transferee (Buyer of the Shares)
• Official Receiver in case of insolvency, Legal heir in case of death

Eligibility Of Membership-

1. Cannot be a Member-
I. Individual

• Minor himself
• Insolvent
• Insane

II. Organisation:

• Partnership firm
• Hindu Undivided Family (HUF)

Can be a Member

I. Individual

• Foreigner
• Karta of HUF / partners
• Individual partners

II. Organisation:

• Company
• Co-operative Society
• Limited Liability Partnership (LPP)
• Registered trust

Acquisition of Membership (One can become member of the company).

• By subscribing to the Memorandum
• By application and allotment of shares
• By holding Shares in Dematerialized form
• By transfer
• By transmission of shares
• Nominee of One Person Company (OPC)
• By Acquiescence

Cessation / Termination of Membership (A person ceases to be the member of company)

• Transfer of Shares
• Death or insolvency of a member
• Sale of Shares by the member in buy back offer
• Forfeiture of Shares
• Surrender of Shares to company
• Exercising of lien over the Shares of a member
• Redeemable Preference Shareholders on redemption of Preference Shares
• Person who rescinds(cancel) the contract of membership on the ground, he/she was cheated
• Winding up of the company

Rights of a Member-

(1) Rights of accessing Books and Documents:

• To get copies of Memorandum and Articles of Association, Auditor’s and Directors reports, Balance Sheet, Profit and Loss account.
• To inspect Register of Members, Debenture-holders, etc.

(2) Right to make Fundamental Corporate Decision:

• Change of Registered office of Company
• Increase in Authorized Capital
• Change of objects of the company
• Amend Articles of Association
• Acquisitions, Mergers and Takeovers
• Appointing Sole – Selling agents
• Winding up of the Company

(3) Right to Participate in General Meetings:

• To receive the notice and agenda of all general meetings
• To appoint proxy, vote at meetings
• To call Extra Ordinary General meeting, etc.

(4) Right to appoint and remove a Director

(5) Right with respect to Company’s accounts and its audit:

• To approve the annual accounts at the Annual General Meeting
• To appoint auditors
• To remove auditors

(6) Right to Participate in Profits of the company:
To approve dividend and get the same within 30 days of its declaration

(7) Shareholding Rights:
To receive share certificate, transfer of shares, Rights Issue and Bonus Issue of shares

(8) Right to receive Surplus Assets:
To get share in surplus assets of company (if any), in event of liquidation of company

(9) Right to Class Action Suit:

• against company or its directors
• in the event of any fraudulent, unlawful or wrongful act or omission
• misleading statements in the audit report

Duties and Liabilities of a Member-

• to abide all the contents of Articles of Association.
• to pay full value of shares issued.
• liable for all debts of the Company (Unlimited Liability Company).

Word Meaning:

eligibility – necessary requirements; acquisition – to obtain; cessation – to end; depository – institution where shares are held in electronic form; interchangeable – similar; acquiescence – agreement; estoppel – by any previous law; misrepresents – giving a false details; refuting – rejection; succession – in continuation; deceased – death; transmission – to pass on; insolvency – financially loss incurred by individual or company(liabilities more then assets); sui-juris – legally capable; insane/lunatic – mental imbalance; render – to provide / to give; dematerialized – convert shares from physical form to electronic form ; insanity – mentally ill; administrator – a person who carries out administers or manage the business; forfeiture – to cancel; redeemable – to repay; rescinds – to cancel; fundamental – basic; fradulent – cheating; tribunal – a body formed to solve disputes; redress – to solve; acquired – to obtain; conferred – to give; convenants – contents; accumulated – collected; transferee – a person on whose name the shares are transferred.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes Chapter 4 Documents Related to Formation of a Company students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 4 Documents Related to Formation of a Company

Documents Required For Incorporation Of A Company-

1. Memorandum of Association
2. Articles of Association

1. Memorandum of Association:

Definition : “MOA of a company as originally framed or as altered from time to time in pursuance of any provision of any previous Company Law or of this Act.”
(Section 2 (56) — Companies Act, 2013)

Meaning :

• Primary document of a company states its aims and objectives
• Describes relationship between the company and outsiders
• Prepared by the promoters

Signed by:

• 7 persons – Public Company,
• 2 persons – Private Company
• 1 person – One Person Company

Clauses :

• Name Clause
• Address Clause
• Object Clause
• Liability Clause
• Capital Clause
• Association Clause

2. Articles of Association:

Definition : “Articles of Association as originally framed or as altered from time to time in pursuance of any previous Company Law or of this Act.”
(Section 2 (56) — Companies Act, 2013)

Meaning :

• Subordinate document to MOA
• It is like Bye-laws of the company
• Describes powers, rights and duties of Board of Directors
• Describes relationship between the company and its members and also between members.

Contains :
Rules and regulation for internal management of the Company

Clauses of MOA-

• Name Clause
• Subscription Clause
• Address Clause
• Capital Clause
• Liability Clause
• Object Clause

→ Any Act done beyond the power of MOA is called as “Ultra-Vires” i.e. invalid.

Entrenchment of Articles:

Articles (Provisions) which cannot be altered by passing only a special resolution is called Entrenchment of Articles. It requires 9/10th of the majority to alter the provision.

Doctrine of Indoor Management:

It protects the interest of the outsiders, who enters into contract assuming that the company follows all procedures as per MOA and AOA.

Prospectus:

Contents of Prospectus-

1. Declaration by Company:

Stating-

• all provisions of Companies Act, 2013 is complied
• it does not contain anything contrary to provisions of Companies Act, 2013, Securities Contracts Act, 1956 and SEBI Act, 1992

2. Statement of an Expert:

Statement by –
Company Secretary, Chartered Accountant, Cost Accountant, Valuer,Engineer, etc.

3. Information and Reports:

• name of the issuing company
• registered office address
• number and price of share
• lead merchant banker
• registrar to the issue
• date of opening and closing of issue, etc.

Statutory Requirements For Prospectus-

• Drafting prospectus with SEBI and making available to the Public and Stock Exchange
• Signed by all Directors or authorized attorney
• Registration of Prospectus with ROC
• Issuing prospectus to Public within 90 days from the date of registration
• Dating of Prospectus

→ Mis-statement in Prospectus means untrue or misleading information given in the prospectus.

Liability In Case of Mis-Statement in Prospectus –

1. Civil n Liability:
   To pay compensation for loss suffered by investor
2. Criminal Liability:
   Company or its officers to be fined or imprisoned or both

Word Meaning:

distinction – difference; altered – changed; pursuance – effect of; privileges – benefits; subscriber – member; ultra-vires – act done beyond the legal power; distinct – well defined in existence; constitute – found; emblems – symbol; resemble – same / similar; incorporation – the process of registering a company; domicile – location; immoral – dishonest; contravention – violation / against; incidental – happening by chance; consequential – resulting / thereafter; null and void – not legally considered to be existed; injunction – order; doctrine – set of beliefs; contractual – legal agreement between company and member; authorised – permitted; desirous – intention / need; subordinate – secondary / next to; establishes – builds; arbitration – to settle disputes by negotiation; indemnity – protection; entrenched – unlike to change; elaborate – detailed; accordance – following; proceedings – course of action / steps; disclosures – declaration; abridged – short writing material; prospectus – a printed booklet giving information about company; attorney – legal practitioner; imprisonment – behind the bars / jailed; furtherance – assisting /assistance; mis-statements – wrong information / words; red

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes Chapter 12 Correspondence with Statutory Authorities students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Notes Chapter 12 Correspondence with Statutory Authorities

Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA)-

• Powers delegated by Central Government to regulate
• the functioning of the Corporate sector to MCA.
• MCA mainly concerned with

Administration of the following Acts-

• The Companies Act, 2013
• The Partnership Act, 1932
• The Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008
• The Competition Act, 2002
• Societies Registration Act, 1860

Supervision of Professional Bodies like-

• Institute of Chartered Accountant of India (ICAI)
• Institute of Company Secretaries of India (ICSI)
• Institute of Cost Accountants of India

Objectives of MCA

• To administer provisions and other allied laws of Companies Act. 2O13
• To offer various services to the stakeholders
• T0 identify non-compliance of Companies Act
• To make corporate data available to public
• To encourage companies to improve Porate Governance and adopt responsible business practices
• To promote fair competition

Organizational set up to administer the Companies Act, 2013:

• Ministry of Corporate Affairs (Head Quarters in New Delhi)
• 7 Regional Directors (Incharge of 7 regions in India) (Ahmedabad, Chennai, Hyderabad,
• Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, Shillong)
• 22 Registrars of Companies
• 1 Central Registration Center
• 9 ROCs-cum- Official Liquidators
• Official Liquidators (Officers appointed by High Courts to assist in procedure of winding up of companies)

Registrar of Companies (ROC’s)-

• Appointed by Central Government
• To administer the Companies Act in the State under its jurisdiction
• To look after Registration of Companies falling under its jurisdiction
• Acts as full time field officers with wide powers and responsibilities

Duties of ROC’s-

• To examine document filed by companies
• To order a company to rectify defective or incomplete document
• To take decisions on document filed within 30 days of filing
• To provide company with copy of document filed on payment of prescribed fees

Powers of ROC’s-

• To extend the time of holding Annual General Meeting, by a period not more than 3 months.
• To inspect or call for books of accounts, other books and papers.
• To seek in writing an information or explanation relating to furnished.
• To get Special Court permission to is sue an order for seizure of books and papers of a Company, if  such records are to be destroyed, altered or falsified.
• To strike off or remove the name of a company from the Register.

National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT)-

Power of (NCLT)-

• To hear and give decisions on proceedings related to compromise, arrangement and reconstruction of a company.
• To hear and give decision on winding up petitions.
• To hear and give decisions on petition for extension of time for repayment of deposits.
• To make call for holding AGM or EOGM of a company
• To direct company to not dispose off funds of a company and to freeze the assets of a company used against the interest of the company.
• To hear and give decisions on grievances of rejection in transferring shares and securities
• To hear and give decisions on grievances of rejection in transferring shares and securities.

National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT)-

• Set by Central Government in June, 2016.
• To hear appeals against the orders of NCLT / National Financing Reporting Agency.
• To hear appeals against the order passed by Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India.

Structure of National Company Law Appellate Tribunal-

Chairperson (Head):
Maximum 11 Members:

• Judicial members
• Technical members

Operation of NCLAT

• Any person aggrieved by an order of the Tribunal, may within 45 days from the date of order may file an appeal to NCLAT.
• NCLAT may confirm, modify or set aside the order.
• An appeal against the NCLAT order may be filed to Supreme Court within 60 days from date of receipt of NCLAT order.

Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)-

• Statutory body
• Head office – Mumb
• Established in 1992

Objectives of SEBI-

• To regulate the functioning of securities markets and Stock Exchanges in India.
• To protect investors and safeguard their rights.
• To regulate the market intermediaries.
• To develop a code of conduct for fair practices for market intermediaries.

Precautions to be taken by Secretary while Corresponding with Statutory Authorities:

• Prompt Reply
• Legal aspects
• Clarity
• Brevity
• Courtesy

Word Meaning:

allied – joined / connected; fair – honest; stakeholder – a person having an interest in the business; liquidators – a person appoint to wind up the affairs of company; defective – wrong; prescribed -to advise; vested – given; delegated – to give responsibility of certain work; furnish – to provide; alter- to change; falsified – to alter wrong information; quasi – partly; jurisdiction – official power to make legal judgments or decisions; seizure – to take back; empowered – power to do something; oppression – ill treatment; dispose off – give it away; freeze – temporary stopping the rights; grievances – problems; rejection – to not approve; appeal – to request; bankruptcy – failure to run the business; aggrieved – a person who does not accepts the order passed by lower jurisdiction body; safeguard – to protect; code of conduct – set of rules; intermediaries – middle person to do certain work / agent; explicit – to state clearly; calamity – sudden damage; portal – a website; instances – example; challan – form to filled to pay taxes; petition – a formal written request; default – failure to pay; regulator – a person / organization supervise certain activity.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Constitutional Government students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Constitutional Government

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study the meaning of the Constitution and Constitutionalism. We will also study about Federation and compare the Parliamentary and Parliamentary system

Constitution:
Meaning: The constitution is the highest law of the country. It reflects the objectives of the State and the rights and aspirations of its citizens. It establishes the rule of law and sets limits on government authority. A constitution is a living document that indicates the way in which a country is governed. The primary function of the constitution is to lay out the basic structure of the government according to which the people are to be governed.

Components: A constitution has three distinct but interrelated components.

• Set of Rules – A Constitution is a set of rules that describes the structure, powers and functions of the three organs of government to ensure that each organ functions within its jurisdiction. It lays down the limitations on what the government can do or cannot do.
• Set of Rights- A constitution lists the rights and duties of citizens. It also lists the means of protecting the rights e.g., in India, the judiciary is entrusted with protecting fundamental rights. The rights guaranteed by the constitution are not unlimited i.e. they are subject to reasonable limitations or restrictions.
•  Set of Objectives and Values – A constitution enumerates the values and objectives that it seeks to fulfil for e.g., the Indian Constitution seeks to ensure the values of justice, liberty and equality.

Constitutionalism:
Constitutionalism refers to the idea that there should be limitations on the powers of the government which may be specified in the Constitution or may arise due to historical developments. The Magna Carta (Great Charter) (1215) and Bill of Rights (1689) in England were attempts to restrict the powers of the Monarchs.

As the concept of separation of legislative, executive, judicial powers became popular, so also, the idea of restricting powers of the government as a whole emerged. The origins of constitutionalism can be traced to the Social Contract Theory propounded by John Locke. He believed that people should have the right to change the government if it committed any wrongdoings.

The first ten amendments to the American Constitution (collectively called the Bill of Rights) imposed restrictions on the government. The Indian constitution also restricts government jurisdiction so that it doesn’t violate Fundamental Rights.

Any constitution is subject to amendments. Thus, it is possible that certain governments may use their amendment powers to remove restrictions on policies and actions.

In any democracy, constitutionalism refers to restrictions on the power of the government, adherence to the spirit of the constitution as well as ‘Constitutional Morality.

Types Of Constitutions:

1. Written Constitution – Most world constitutions are written and have been created by a specially appointed body e.g., Indian Constitution was framed by the Constituent Assembly. There is a single, written document that contains all necessary provisions.
2. Unwritten Constitution – In this case, some provisions are written while other provisions are governed by constitutional convention or precedents. There is no single written document. United Kingdom is the best example of an unwritten constitution.

Types Of Democratic Governments:
The two main types of democratic governments are Parliamentary System (as seen in the United Kingdom, India, Canada, Australia, Japan, etc.) and Presidential System (which exists in the U.S.A., Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, etc.). This distinction is based mainly on the nature of Legislature-Executive relationship.

Parliamentary System: It makes a distinction between Head of State (President of India) and Head of Government (Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers).

The main features of the parliamentary system are –

• There is a fusion of legislature and executives powers – The executive i.e., the Ministry is drawn from the legislature and is subordinate to it.
• There are two executives i.e., nominal executive (President of India or Monarch in England) and real executive (ministry). All powers are exercised by the real executive in the name of the nominal executive.
• It is a responsible government – The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers stay in power only as long as they have the required majority in the Parliament. In case, the Ministry loses majority support, the Prime Minister has to resign along with the Council of Ministers.
• It may exist either as a Republic or as a Constitutional Monarchy depending on the nature of the powers of the nominal executive. In a Republic, the nominal executive is elected e.g., in India, while in a Monarchy, he/she assumes position on the basis of heredity e.g., in England.
• Most Parliamentary systems have a Bicameral Parliament for e.g., in England, Parliament consists of House of Commons (lower house-directly elected) and House of Lords (upper house-hereditary basis)

Presidential System: The main features of a Presidential system are –

• The President who is directly elected by the citizens for a fixed tenure is both, the Head of State and Head of Government. Thus, there is only one executive.
• The Legislature is also directly elected. Generally, members of the executive are not permitted to belong to the legislature.
• There exists a separation of legislative and executive powers as well as a system of checks and balances for e.g., Legislature can impeach the President, while the President can exercise the ‘Veto Power’ to reject any law passed by the Legislature.
• The President can continue in office irrespective of whether or not he/she enjoys majority support in the Legislature.

Federalism:
A federation refers to a political structure in which there are two sets of governments i.e. one for the whole
country and governments in each of the federal units (called Provinces or States). There is a distribution of powers between the Federal government (also known as Union or Central Government) and the State Governments. Federal governments are preferred in countries having large size and heterogeneous population.

A Federation may be performed by two processes –

1. Small political units ‘come together to establish a single, large political unit for e.g., thirteen colonies came together to fight for independence from British rule and the U.S. federation came into being. This is called centripetal process.
2. States are created by the Union government for e.g., in India, States were reorganized on the basis of language and other regional aspirations. This is the centrifugal process.

The main features of a federation are –

• Dual set of government i.e., Union and State governments.
• Division of power between the two sets of governments for e.g., in India, jurisdiction is distributed
  between the Union (Centre) and States on the basis of the Union, State and Concurrent lists (as stated in Seventh Schedule of the Constitution)
• A written constitution to enable a clear distribution of government powers.
• Independent judiciary – to resolve Centre-State or State-State disputes.

The Indian Federation differs greatly from the U.S. federation. India has been described as ‘quasi federation’ or a ‘federation with an unitary spirit’ as the division of powers favours the Central government for e.g., it has full control over the Union list and Residuary subjects and it’s laws have precedence over state laws even in case of the Concurrent list.

Unitary system: countries that are small in size prefer to have a single, central, government. This is called an Unitary System. This is seen in Cuba, France, Bolivia, Israel, Portugal, Sri Lanka, etc. Some hitherto unitary system change to a quasi-unitary form through establishment of provinces and distribution of political power to somewhat autonomous units for e.g., UK has an unitary system. However, its regions i.e., Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland have their own assemblies with some degree of autonomy. These are known as ‘Holding Together’ federations.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Contribution of Western and Indian Sociologists students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Contribution of Western and Indian Sociologists

→ France is said to be the birthplace of sociology as the foundations of sociology were laid by Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim.

→ Sociology was later continued in other countries in Europe and the western world.

Introduction to Western Sociologists:

1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857).
2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)

(1) Auguste Comte (1798-1857).

• Auguste Comte is popularly known as the ‘Father of Sociology’.
• His full name was ‘Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier Comte.
• He was a mathematician and philosopher, yet expressed the need for ‘reconstruction of society’.

Three Stages pf Evolution:

1. Theological Stage
2. Metaphysical Stage
3. Positive/Scientific Stage

(2) Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

• Emile Durkheim has written on social facts, social solidarity, collective representation, social values and morality, crime and punishment.
• He has elaborated an analysis of suicide as a social fact and phenomenon in his book. ‘Le Suicide’.
• Durkheim, “suicide refers to every case of death which results directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act, carried out by the victim himself, knowing that it will produce this result”.

Forms of Suicide:

1. Fatalistic Suicide
2. Altruistic Suicide
3. Egoistic Suicide
4. Anomic Suicide

(3) Karl Marx (1818-1883)

• Karl Marx is also known as the architect of communism.
• In his ‘Communist Manifesto’ he said that at every stage in history, there is a war between the classes.
• According to Marx, the economic factor forms the basis of class.

Theory of ‘Class Conflict’ :

• The Importance of Property
• Class Solidarity and Antagonism
• Polarization of Classes
• Revolution
• Surplus Value
• Dictatorship of Proletariat
• Pauperization
• Emergence of the Communist Society
• Alienation

Introduction to Indian Sociologists:

• ‘Sociology’ and ‘Social anthropology’ were brought to India by British scholars living in India.
• Indian scholars trained in Britain and USA played a major role in the development of their two disciplines.
• A separate department was started in the University of Mumbai (then Bombay) in the year 1919.
• Indian sociologist played a major role in the development of sociology in India, with their specific
  contributions.