Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 6 Ocean Resources students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 6 Ocean Resources

→ The scientific study of oceans began in the early nineteenth century when the British ship ‘Challenger’ sailed around the world. It brought information about the ocean depths and teeming life found in them.

→ With the help of the Echo sounder technique, the map makers began to map different ocean floors. Today, many nations are involved in the study of the oceans.

→ The Structure of Ocean Floor

• Presently, not only are the surface or coastal areas of the ocean are exploited but advanced
  research is carried out to see how the deeper part of the oceans can be useful to mankind.
• The continental shelf: The portion of the continents that is submerged underwater and borders the coastal areas is known as a continental shelf.
• Continental slope: After the extent of the continental shelf is over, there is a sharp drop in the ocean floor. The gradient of slope in this region can be between 2° to 5°. This is called the continental slope.
• Abyssal plains: Beyond the continental slope, lie the abyssal plains. The abyssal plains are often littered with nodules of manganese-containing varying amounts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper.
• The oceanic trenches: At places, deep, narrow, and steeply sloping depressions are found on the ocean floor. These are called ocean deeps of ocean trenches.
• Oceanic ridges and plateaus: The submerged mountains on the ocean floor are called oceanic ridges. At places, the peaks of oceanic ridges appear above the ocean surface. These are called oceanic islands.

Type of Oceanic Islands:

1. Continental Islands
2. Volcanic Island
3. Coral Islands

Ocean Resources:
There are a variety of biotic and abiotic resources found abundantly at different levels of ocean floor.

Use of Oceans:

1. Tidal and Thermal Energy
2. Drinking Water
3. Trade and Transport
4. Tourism

International Resources:
International institutions regulate the ocean resources. The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of international institutions.

Marine Pollution:

• Human dependence on oceans is likely to increase manifold. However, nowadays, the oceanic waters are getting polluted on a large scale. This causes deterioration of the natural quality of ocean water.
• The leakages of oil from oil transporting ships, oil extraction from coastal areas, disposal of solid waste containing radioactive matter, atomic tests, etc., are causing large-scale pollution of oceanic waters.
• The effluents brought by river discharges, the disposal of waste from coastal cities, the waste from industries, and many other similar factors are polluting the oceanic waters.
• As a result, the very existence of marine life is threatened.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 5 Global Climate Change students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 5 Global Climate Change

→ The average temperature on the surface of the Earth depends on a number of factors like the time of day, the time of year, and where the temperatures measurements are being taken.

→ The average temperature of the Earth is around 14°C. This average temperature has increased by 0.8°C.

→ The average surface temperature of the earth is increasing and it has been found that the impact of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, etc., has been enormous.

→ This has led to an increase in the heat holding capacity of the atmosphere which in turn increases the temperature. This phenomenon is called global warming.

→ Effects of Global Warming:

• Heat Waves
• Heat Islands
• Increase in Sea Level
• Melting of glaciers at high altitudes and snow in polar areas

→ Global sea level has been rising at a rate of about 3 mm/per year. This global sea level rise is caused because of increased melting of ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.

→ Higher sea levels may lead to deadlier cyclones and frequent flooding of coastal areas. Many islands are also at risk of getting submerged. It means loss of habitat for fishes, birds and plants.

→ Climate Change :

Climatic change is felt in the intensity, duration and spell of the seasons. The frequent change in the patterns of climate at the global level is considered as climate change.

Changes Observed at the Global Level:

1. Arrival of Monsoons
2. Quantity and Frequency of Rainfall
3. Change in Seasons
4. Change in Flowering
5. Increase in Occurrence of Floods or Drought

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has been mentioning about climate pattern indicators in their reports regularly.

Drastic Change in the Climate Patterns:

1. Increase in the number and intensity of floods
2. Increase in the intensity of droughts and cyclones
3. Carbon dioxide and crop yields
4. Rainforests and climate change

Causes of Climate Change :
Human activities are a major cause behind climate change. However, there are some natural causes for climate change as well.

Naturals Causes of Climate Changes:

1. Energy output by the sun
2. Milankovitch Oscillations
3. Volcanism
4. Goldiocks Zone

Tools for Studying Climate Change :

• Scientists and meteorologists have been using instruments to measure climate and weather.
• They use historical evidence called proxy data to measure climate and weather of millions of years ago.

Proxy Data:

• Coral Reefs
• Tree Rings
• Ice Cores

Climate Change and India:

• Developing countries, the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and small island nations are at the highest risk of damage due to the climate change.
• Countries such as India and China contribute significantly to global emissions and have an important role to play.
• India has high vulnerabilities to climate change impacts due to its peculiar economy and geography.
• Besides, promoting clean energy and taking steps to protect environment, the government of India has taken the important steps for combating climate change.

Steps for Combating Climate Change:

1. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008
2. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)
3. National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF)

Lifestyle Changes and Climate Change:
This could include only buying things that are necessary, walking smaller distances, using energy-efficient devices, reducing our dependence on wood, and not using plastic.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 4 Climatic Regions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 4 Climatic Regions

Five Spheres of the Earth:

1. Lithosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Biosphere
4. Magnetosphere

→ The climate of any region is decided by detailed study and observation for a longer period of time such as 30 years.

→ The climate of a place is responsible for the variety in so many factors including our food, our occupations, our houses, our clothes and many activities.

→ Natural Regions – It is a basic geographic unit. Usually it is a region which is distinguished by its common natural features of geography, geology and climate.

Classification of Climate and Identifying Climate Regions :

Climate Regions:

Low latitude :

• Equatorial Rainforests
• Tropical Monsoon Climate
• Tropical Savannah Type of Climate
• Tropical Deserts or Arid Type of Climate

Mid Latitude:

• Mediterranean Climate
• China Type Climate or Humid Sub Tropical Climate
• Marine West European Type Climate

High Latitude:

• Taiga or Sub-Arctic
• Tundra
• Ice Sheet
• Highland or Mountain Type

Low-latitude regions:

Tropical Monsoon Climate:

• SW India and SE Asia, SW Africa, NE and SE Brazil, northern parts of Australia, parts of tlapan]
• Summer temperature around 27°C to 32°C, winter temperature 15°C to 24°C j
• Rainfall, 250 to 2500 mm, orographic rainfall (India)
• High annual range of temperature
• Less biodiversity as compared to tropical forests
• Iron rich soils in high rainfall zones
• Large hooved leaf eaters and carnivores
• Paddy, rice agriculture
• 10° to 30° N and S

Tropical Savannah Climate:

• Herding and animal husbandry
• Tall and thick grass (Elephant grass), scattered drought resistant trees, broad towards the apex, scrub
• Between 10° to 20° N and S latitudes
• Summer temperatures around 35°C, winter temperatures around 24°C
• Average rainfall of 250-1000 mm
• Grazing more common, large herbivores, carnivores and scavengers
• Parts of peninsular India, rain-shadow zone in Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, parts of Mizoram, Congo, south-central Africa, llanos of Venezuela, Campos of Brazil

Tropical Deserts or Arid type Climate:

• Xerophytic vegetation
• Between 20° to 30° latitude in both hemispheres
• Small nocturnal, burrowing animals
• Badaun, (Sahara), Bushmen (Kalahari), Aborigines (Australia)
• Agriculture practised near oases
• Summer temperature around 30°C to 45°C, winter temperature around 20°C to 25°C highest diurnal range, highest day-time temperatures
• Precipitation less than 200mm. Low or no humidity
• Western coasts of all continents, parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan and south west Haryana, Iran, interior parts of Asia, coastal Chile, Peru, south-west Africa, interior Mexico, Baja California, North Africa, Namibia and parts of US.
• Saline soil

Mediterranean Climate:

Mid-latitude regions :

• Olives, grapes, vegetables, citrus fruits, animal husbandry
• Western Coastal region between 30° to 40° N and S
• Tourism, cinema industries
• 500 to 1000 mm winter rainfall, foggy coasts
• Coniferous vegetation in high altitudes, grass in areas of low rainfall
• Scrubs, leaves are evergreen, hard, thick leathery, usually small
• Central California, borders of Mediterranean Sea, Cape Town, Southern and SW Australia, Central part of Chile
• Mild, moist winters, temperature around 10°C to 14°C warm, dry summers, temperature around 21°C to 27°C quite sunny, high summer

China type Climate or Humid Sub – tropical Climate:

• East coast location between 20° and 40° N and S
• Mixed forests, grasslands, pines in higher altitudes.
• Rice, wheat, corn, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits.
• Humid in summer, cyclonic storms in winter
• Precipitation between 600 to 2500 mm
• High humidity, hot summers, frost in winter
• Warmest months above 10°C, coldest between 0°C and 18°C
• SE USA, SE South America, coastal SE South Africa, Eastern Australia, Eastern Asia from through South  China to Southern Japan, Easter island in Chile

High-latitude region:

Tundra Climate:

Ice Sheet:

Highland or Mountain type:

• Grazing, pastures, terrace cultivation
• Laterite soils
• Tourism
• Widely over Earth
• Grazing, pastures, terrace cultivation
• Coniferous in higher reaches, tropical deciduous to evergreen, in lower reaches
• Orographic rainfall, snowfall in higher reaches
• The climate depends on altitude, location on the leeward or windward side
• Mountains in Asia, central Europe, western North, and South America

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 13 India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 13 India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

India and Sri Lanka:
The history of Sri Lanka and India has remained close-knit from ancient times. ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, ‘Chullavamsa’ are the three texts that tell us about the Indian and Sri Lankan dynasties, their mutual relations and the historical events, in the times before and after Gautama Buddha. These texts are known as ‘Vamsagranthas’.

According to the Vamsagranthas, the first kingdom of Sri Lanka was established in the 6th century C.E. and was known as ‘Tambapanni (Tamrapanni)’. Another name of the kingdom was ‘Rajrat’. Greek historians have mentioned it as ‘Taprobane’.

The festival known as ‘Unduvapa Poya’ is celebrated every year in Sri Lanka, on the full moon in the month of December, in the memory of Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival.

The important cultural places in Sri Lanka: Anuradhpur – Mihinthale: Thera Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta stayed at Mihinthale near Anuradhpaur. It facilitated the establishment and spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Important Stupas at Anuradhpur – Mihinthale: ‘Kantakchetiya’ is one of the earliest stupas at Mihinthale.

An inscription near the stupa mentions that the revenue collected from a nearby tank and the surrounding land was reserved as a gift for the maintenance of this stupa. The stupa erected on the remains (Shareerik Dhatu/asthi) of Thera Mahinda at Mihinthale, is known as Ambasthal Thupa’.

Pulatthinagar (Polonnaruwa): The city of Polonnaruwa is mentioned in Chullvamasa by the name, ‘Pulatthinagar’. In the 10th century C.E. the Chola emperor Rajraja I attacked Sri Lanka and razed Anuradhpur completely. Then he established his capital at Polonnaruwa. He renamed Polannaruwa as ‘Jananathmangalam’ and built a Shiva temple there.

Dambulla and Sigiriya: The caves at Dambulla in Sri Lanka are declared as World Cultural Heritage. There are images of Gautama Buddha and the Bodhisattvas inside the caves. The roofs of five caves at Dambulla are decorated with paintings.

There is an enormous rock in the mountains near the city of Dambulla. A fort and a palace were built on this rock. At its entrance, a huge image of a lion was carved in the rock. The place was named ‘Sigiriya’ after this lion. Sigiriya murals are compared with the murals at Ajanta.

India and Southeast Asia:
There are very few references in the Indian literature to the Indian settlements and kingdoms in Southeast Asia. However, the court records of Chinese emperors provide considerable information in this regard. The ancient Indian literature refers to the land of Southeast Asia as ‘Suvarabhumi’ (the Land of Gold). The trading relations between India and Southeast Asia began in the 1st century B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century C.E.

The term ‘Southeast Asia’ was coined in the times of the Second World War The Buddhist texts mention a ‘Suvarnabhumi’.

The scholars divide Southeast Asia into two parts based on its geographic features:

• The Mainland: This region is also known as Indo-China. It comprises the countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and also the western region of Malaysia.
• The Maritime region: It comprises the Malaya peninsula, the eastern region of Malaysia as well as Indonesia.

Myanmar: ‘Myanmar’ is a neighbouring country of India, adjacent to its northeast border. It was earlier known as ‘Brahmdesh’. In the 2nd century B.C.E. There were city-states known as ‘Pyu’ in the north and central regions of Myanmar. Some new Pyu cities came into existence at a later period. Among them the cities of ‘Halin’ and ‘Shrikshetra’ were important.

Thailand: The ancient Thai people referred to their country as ‘Mueng Thai’. However, it was known in the world as ‘Siam’. In the 20th century, its name was changed to ‘Thailand’. Thailand was ruled from the 6th to the 11th century by ‘Mon’ people. At that time, it was known as ‘Dvaravati’. Indian culture was introduced and spread in Thailand in the ‘Dvaravati’ period. Th.n Indian traditions of sculpture, literature, ethics, judicial science, etc. had a great role in shaping up the Mon culture.

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia:
In the colonial period Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, these three countries together were known as ‘Indo-China’. During the 8th – 12th century C.E. the Mon and Khmer people ruled over Cambodia. Khmer empire originated in Cambodia.

a. Funan:
This was a kingdom in Vietnam which existed in the Delta region of the river Mekong. Funan is known mainly through the Chinese records. The ‘Han’ dynasty ruled in China in the 3rd century C.E. When the rule of Han dynasty was ended, China disintegrated into three parts.

Because of it, the southern kingdom of China was not left with any alternative path to reach the Silk Route Hence, the king of the southern kingdom sent some people to explore the sea route. They found a kingdom in the delta region of the Mekong. They named it ‘Funan’.

b. Champa:
‘Champa’ was an ancient kingdom in the coastal region of Vietnam. Several Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script have been found there. Champa was named after the ‘Cham’ tribe. The names of the cities in Champa were ‘Indrapur’, ‘Amaravati’, ‘Vijay’, ‘Kauthara’ and ‘Panduranga’. The city of Vijay was the capital of Champa kingdom.

c. Laos:
Laos is a landlocked country. The population of Laos is mainly composed of the ‘Lao’ people who came to Laos from southern China. The name of the kingdom of Laos was ‘Lao Sang’. This kingdom was in existence during 14th-18th century. Lao Sang was attacked by Thailand in the 19th century. Lao Sang could not survive the attack. In the latter half of the 19th century, the French established their administrative centre in Vientiane, the capital of Laos.

d. Cambodia:
Cambodia was known as ‘Kambujadesha’ in ancient times. Its history is known from the inscriptions installed in the precincts of its temples. These inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Khmer languages. The first kingdom, established in Cambodia was known by the name of ‘China’s.

The people who established Chenla were known as ‘Khmer’. The influence of Indian culture in Cambodia dates back to the Chenla period. The kingdom of Chenla was established by Jayavarman II. He was coronated in 802 C.E. His capital’s name was ‘Hariharalaya’.

Malaysia and Indonesia:
Before the arrival of the Europeans, there have been three kingdoms in Malaysia. The ‘Vayu Purana’ mentions Malay peninsula as ‘Malaydvipa’. The Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing/ Yi-Jing (7th century C.E.) had visited the ‘Malayu’ kingdom. Ptolemy has mentioned Malayu as ‘Maleu Kolon’ and ‘Golden Chersonese’ (golden peninsula). An inscription in the Brihadishvara temple in Tanjore mentions it as ‘Malaiyur’. Malayu was one of the kingdoms conquered by the Chola King Rajendra. The Chinese court records also mention ‘Malayu’.

a. Srivijaya: This kingdom proved to be more powerful among all kingdoms who competed with each other. This kingdom originated in Sumatra.

Malayu and other neighbouring kingdoms who were weaker than Srivijaya were gradually merged into it. In the 11th century C.E. Srivijya became weaker while facing the Chola invasion. In the 14th century C.E. ‘Parameswaran’ alias ‘Eskandar Shah’, the last king of Malayu established the first Sultanate of Malaya.

b. Majapahita: In the 13th century C.E., in Eastern Java, arose a kingdom known as ‘Majapahita’. This was the last kingdom, with Indian cultural traits. The name of the founder king of Majapahita was, ‘Vijaya’. King Vijaya was successful in sacking Kublai Khan from Java.

c. Shailendra: According to some Indian historians the Shailendra kings hailed from India. However, this opinion is not accepted by all historians. The Shailendras reached the peak of their political power in the 8th – 9th centuries. The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism.

d. Matram: There was a kingdom called Mataram contemporary to Shailendra. Its founder king’s name was Sanjaya. During the period of Matram kingdom, ‘Mahabharata’ and ‘Harivamsha’ were translated in Japanese language. Poems in ancient Japanese language are composed in Sanskrit metres like ‘Shardulvikridita’. Poems composed in metres are known as ‘Kakvin’.

Glossary:

→ Precinct – A part of a town/city that has a particular use, where vehicles are not allowed.

→ Landlocked – Completely surrounded by land.

→ Supremacy – The state of being the most powerful.

→ Candi – A Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion

Agents of Erosion:

1. Running Water(River)
2. Sea Waves
3. Wind
4. Glaciers
5. Ground Water

→ Agents of erosion cause various processes when they pick up, move and deposit rock particles. These processes lead to erosional and depositional landforms.

Processes of Erosion:

River-

• Attrition
• Solution
• Downcutting
• Drilling
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Sea Waves-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Solution
• Lateral erosion

Wind-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Deflation

Glacier-

• Plucking
• Abrasion
• Downcutting
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Transportation :

• Traction : The material acquired by the agents is transported by rolling, pushing and dragging along the surface.
• Saltation : Often the rock materials move forward by leaps and bounds through this process.
• Suspension : Fine light material is carried along with water or air in the upper layer.
• Solution : The material is carried in water in a dissolved state.

Processes of Transportation :

River-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Sea Waves-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Wind-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension

Glacier-
Traction

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Erosion :

• Plucking : The process by which moving ice exerts pressure on majority portion of rocks on bed or along the bank.
• Abrasion : It involves the scratching and polishing of the surface or bedrock by the particles which are moving onto it.
• Attrition: It is when rocks and pebbles bump into each other and break up into smaller fragments.
• Solution : It is when certain types of rocks get eroded as a result of acids in the sea or river water.
• Deflation : The particles which are loosened on the surface are blown away by the wind.
• Drilling : Bedload moves along the running water. As and when this flow encounters an obstacle due to relief on the bed or joints in the bed, the flow tends to develop a circular pattern. This leads to development of a whirl.
• Downcutting : Also called downward erosion is a process of hydraulic action that deepens the channel of a stream or valley by removing material from the stream’s bed or the valley’s floor.
• Headward erosion : It is the backward erosion by river in the source region.
• Lateral erosion : It is the erosion that occurs on the sides of valleys of a river or glacier.

Agents of erosion and landforms :
Factor affecting formation of landforms – climate, type of rocks, intensity of erosion, slope of land and obstacles.

River as an Agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Gorges and Canyons
• V-shaped valley
• Cliffs
• Waterfalls
• Rapids
• Potholes

2. Depositional Features

• Alluvial fans
• Meanders
• Oxbow lakes
• Flood plains
• Natural levees
• Islands
• Deltas
• Estuaries

Sea Water as an Agent of Erosion:

Erosional Features-

• Sea cliffs
• Sea caves
• Sea arch
• Sea stack
• Wave cut platforms

Depositional Features-

• Sea beach
• Lagoon
• Headlands
• Sand spits

Conditions necessary for wind erosion :

• Aridity – In such areas, rate of evaporation is greater than rate of precipitation.
• Sparse vegetation cores or absence of trees.
• Presence of dry loose materials at the surface.
• A wind velocity high enough to pick up and move sediments.

Wind as an agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Feature

1. Erosional Features:

• Deflation Hallows
• Ventifacts
• Mushroom Rocks
• Yardangs

2. Depositional Feature

• Loess
• Barchans
• Sand Dunes

Karst topography needs three important factors to develop:

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Active movement of underground water
3. Joints

Work of Ground Water:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Sink Holes
• Caves

2. Depositional Features:

• Stalactite
• Stalagmite
• Columnor Pillars

Work of Glaciers:

1. Erosional Features
2. De positional Features

1. Erosional Features:

• Roche mountonnees
• Cirque
• Arete
• Horn, Matterhorn
• U-Shaped valley, hanging valley

2. De positional Features:

• Drumlin
• Eskers
• Erratic rock

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China

Trade and Cultural Relations in the Ancient times:
It is very significant that the Indians travelling or migrating to other countries never tried to impose their culture, religions and political rule on the local people. Wherever they went, they had cultural contact and exchange with the native people and it resulted into the enrichment of the native cultures. The spread of Indian culture in the nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist religion.

The Indian trade with distant lands is mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’, Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, etc. These texts narrate many stories of the sea travels and adventures of the Indian merchants.

India and Gandhara (Afghanistan and Pakistan):
It is apparent that geographically Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably situated on the trade route that linked India and Central Asia. It had close cultural connections with India from the ancient period of Janapadas till the introduction of Islam. Whether it was the invaders from the Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out by Emperor Ashoka, or the Chinese monks travelling to India, all had to pass through Afghanistan.

Emperor Ashoka’s Period: We have seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka mentions the names of Greek kings, who were his contemporaries. It also mentions that people in their kingdoms were following the path of morality as outlined to his message of Dhammavijaya. Among these kingdoms, it was included v the kingdom of Kamboja in Afghanistan.

Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post Kushana Period: Kanishka’s empire had spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir in the north and further to Central Asia. Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha (Begram) was an additional capital of the Kushanas, which was located on the silk route at a vantage point. The trade route from Afghanistan to China was under the rule of Kushanas.

The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’ near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another important centre of Buddhism. There are several remains of stupas and viharas scattered over the place. The sculptures found around the stupas are excellent specimens of Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i- Bahi’ is another important place, which is enlisted as ‘World Cultural Heritage.

The government of Afghanistan, with the help of UNESCO and various associations from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland, etc. is working to restore this World Cultural Heritage.

India and China:
The route that links Asia and Europe was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer. The Silk Route runs more than 6000 kilometres. One may have an impression that the Silk Route is an unbroken highway. However, in reality, this route is an intricate web of major and minor lines bifurcating and crossing each other.

It was in the 1st century C.E. that Buddhism began to spread from India to China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China in this period had expanded its empire up to Central Asia. They dominated the Silk Route Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the second king of the Han dynasty had sent his representatives to India.

Glossary:

→ Pagoda – A Buddhist temple in India or South-East Asia.

→ Vantage Point – A place from which you have a good view of something.

→ Sangharama – The residential complex built for the bhikkhus.

→ Mural – A piece of art that is painted on walls.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study the meaning and methods of Representation. We will examine the evolution of Representative Assemblies in England an in India. Next, we will examine channels of representation such as political parties, pressure groups and NGO’s.

Representation:
Meaning: The concept of representation is important in any democracy. In ancient Greek and Roman city-states, there existed directed democracy. City-states such as Athens were of limited geographical area and had a small population. Hence, people there governed themselves. All persons (adult males) who had the right to conduct the affairs of the city-state participated in its decision making.

Today, most countries have large territory and population. Hence, direct democracy is not possible. The form of democracy today is indirect democracy or representative democracy. People elect representatives from among themselves to govern the country for e.g., in India, Members of Parliament (MP’s), Members of State Legislative Assemblies/ Councils (MLA’s, MLC’s), of corporations, etc., are all our representatives.

History Of Representative Democracy:
Representative democracy has its origins in medieval Europe. Till that time, Absolute Monarchies existed in most countries. The Divine Rights of Kings Theory was in application. As time went by, Monarchs in many countries like England started having ‘Representative Assemblies’ which represented the population. Soon, these assemblies asked for a share in the decision-making process of the country leading to conflicts between the monarchs and the assemblies for e.g., during the French Revolution.

Most conflicts ended with reduced power to the monarchs. The ‘Representative Assemblies’, now become ‘Political Representatives’ as they dealt with all government activities. Abraham Lincoln’s definition of a democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people’ aptly sums up the concept of political representation.

After the uprising of 1857, the Queen’s Proclamation (1858) and subsequent Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909) had a few Indians appointed to the National and Provincial Councils. The 1935, Government of India Act, provided for Provincial Assemblies, consisting of elected members in India.

Methods Of Representation:
Methods of representation refer to methods adopted to choose persons in charge of governance.
These include.

• Electoral Method – Persons are directly or indirectly elected by the citizens to govern them as members of representative assemblies e.g., General elections to Lok Sabha.
• Non-electoral Method – Representatives occupy their position though nomination or appointment for e.g., President of India appoints 12 Members to the Rajya Sabha.
• Non-official Method – Civil society represents the people through various pressure groups like trade unions, student groups, etc.

Constituencies And Electoral Systems:
Generally, elections to representative assemblies take place on a geographical basis. The territory is divided into distinct areas (based on population) called constituencies. Citizens living in each constituency have the right to elect their representatives for e.g., Maharashtra has 48 Lok Sabha constituencies and Mumbai city alone has 6 constituencies.

Electoral systems may be classified based on –
(i) How many members need to be elected per constituency?

• Single Member Constituency – only one member is elected
• Multi-Member Constituency – several members can be elected from each constituency.

(ii) How many votes are required to get elected from the constituency?

• Plurality System – The candidate who receives the maximum number of votes is declared as elected for e.g., in the Lok Sabha elections. This is also called First Past the Post system. It is employed in single-member constituencies.
• Majority System – It is necessary to secure a majority of votes (50% or more generally) to be declared as elected for e.g., in Presidential elections in India
• Proportional System – is generally used in multi-member constituencies. The number of candidates of a given political party to be elected depends upon the proportion of votes that the party receives. The types of Proportional Representation include Single Transferable Vote System (used in Legislative Council and Rajya Sabha elections) list system, etc.

Political Parties:
Meaning: Political parties are the most important channels for political representation. They are organized groups, comprising of persons who hold similar views on a variety of issues or have similar objectives. They seek to obtain political power, generally, through the process of elections.

The views of a party taken together are called the party’s ideology. Most parties have a hierarchical organization. At election times, political parties issue ‘Manifestos’ i.e., what policies/programmes they would implement if voted to power. Every party puts up its candidates who contest elections.

Origin Of Political Parties:
Political parties emerged a little after representative assemblies. Members within these assemblies, who held similar views, soon began gathering together to influence policies as they desired. The need for organized groups was felt in representative assemblies to ensure that they commanded a majority to head the government. This was noticed in United Kingdom in the 18th century.

In India, Indian National Congress (INC) was the first political party. It was established in 1885. During the freedom struggle many parties like Muslim League, Communist Party, Hindu Mahasabha, etc. were formed. Many parties were also formed after Independence. Some of these are regional parties like TDP, Shiv Sena, others were formed when they broke away from the main party for e.g., NCP, TMC broke a way from INC while other parties were formed to represent a specific ideology e.g., BJP, Akali Dal, AIMIM or toward specific issues e.g., TRS (Telangana).

Classification Of Political Parties:
In India, political parties are classified as ‘National’ or ‘State’ parties. The Election Commission has set up certain criteria. For a political party be eligible to be recognised as a National party.

• It secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly.
• In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People (Lok Sabha) from any State or States. OR
• It wins at least two percent (2%) seats in the House of People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different States.

At present there are seven National parties i.e. Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Communist Party of India (CPI), Communist Party of India Marxist (CPM), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) and All India Trinamool Congress (TMC).

State-level parties are also called Regional parties since their presence is restricted to one or more states for e.g., Dravida Munnetra Kazhagan (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam AIADMK (Tamil Nadu) or TDP (Andhra Pradesh).

Levels Of Representation And Decision Making:
In India, which is a federation, decision making occurs at both the national and state levels. It also takes place at the local level i.e., in local self-government. Political parties serve as channels of representation at all three levels.

Interest Groups And Pressure Groups:
Interest groups and pressure groups are informal channels that seek to represent the people. A pressure group is an interest group that is organized to influence public opinion and government policy towards the fulfilment of it’s objectives and without active participation in the electoral process.

This includes interest groups in the fields of business such as Federation of India Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI); for labour e.g., Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), Bharatiya Kamgar Sena (BKS), for peasants e.g., Shetkari Sanghatana; for students e.g., Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), National Students Union of India (NSUI). In the USA, pressure groups are also called Lobby Groups.

Non-Government Organization (NGO’s):
Non-Governmental Organizations are another mechanism for representation. They seek to represent and to aid sections of society where the government agencies have been negligent or unsuccessful. Most NGO’s represent a cause and have people with specialized knowledge or strong convictions associated with it. In India, there are numerous NGO’s working for social causes such as for the environment or for underprivileged sections of society such as children, the disabled, women, etc.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions

→ Social institutions refer to a system of well-defined, stable patterns of behaviour. It depends upon the collective activities of people. Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.

→ The Functionalist perspective looks at social institutions as playing a number of specific roles in
facilitating human social life.

→ The Marxist or Conflict perspective holds that all individuals are not placed equally in society.

→ The society comprises various social institutions like family, marriage, education, religion, economy, etc.

→ Family is the most important primary unit of human society. A family is a group of people related by blood.

Functions of Family :

• Socialization
• Regulation of sexual activity
• Emotional security
• Economic stability
• Social Identity

Forms of Family:

Structure
Authority

1. Structure:

• joint family
• Nuclear vamily

2. Authority

• Matriarcha1 family
• Patriarchal family

Twenty first century families:
Family as an institution is significantly changing and many new forms are in the making.

• Single parent fami’y
• Cohabitation
• Step-parenting

Marriage:

• Marriage is a social institution through which family relations are formed. It refers, to a pattern sanctioned by society to enter into sex relations and to procreate.
• Today the concept of marriage is enlarged to include homosexual relations.
• In 1989, Denmark became the first country to formally recognize homosexual marriages.

Forms of Marriage –
Forms of Marriage is Bases on:

1. Number of Partners
2. Rules Governing
3. Social Status

1. Number of Partners:

• Monogamy
• polygamy
  • polyandry
  • Polygyny

2. Rules Governing:

• Endogamy
• Exogamy

3. Social Status

• Hypergamy
• Hypogamy

Family, Kinship and Marriage:

• A family is a group of persons directly linked by kin relations.
• Kinship ties are connections between individuals, established either through marriage or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives.

Economy and Work :

• Economy is a basis social institution which organises production distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Every society has to fulfil material needs in order to maintain itself.
• Human society has evolved through various stages, depending upon the way it evolved mechanisms to adapt to changing material needs.

Three Broad Stages of Transformation of Economy:

1. Agricultural Revolution
2. Industrial Revolution
3. Information Revolution

Changing Nature of Work :

• With advanced industrialization, the proportion of population engaged in agriculture is declining.
• There is also an expansion of service sector in India. One of the main features of modern societies is an enormous expansion of economic interdependence.
• Growing competition between firms and countries make it essential to keep production flexible.

Education :
Modern societies have evolved a distinct institution of education to fulfill basic goals like disseminate ideas and knowledge and to develop skills to use existing knowledge for the betterment of society.

Types of Education:

1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
3. Non-formal Education

Importance of Education:

• Children learn self-discipline
• Instill values of individual achievement
• Gain an understanding of common values and moral beliefs
• Teaches specialised skills needed for a complex modern society

Education and Social Division :
Scholars like Bowles and Gintis argue that workplace inequalities are mirrored in the organization of schools and that the education system reproduces these inequalities. Many studies have pointed out that education as a system also perpetrates gender differences.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology

→ Sociology studies every social phenomenon Therefore, sociology is a complex social science.

→ The concepts of sociology are difficult to understand as they are abstract in nature.

Basic Concepts in Sociology:

1. Society
2. Social Role
3. Community
4. Social Norms
5. Social Group
6. Social Status

→ According to Aristotle, ‘man is a social animal’ and cannot live without society.

→ Man is subjected to some elemental and derived needs that can be satisfied within the societal framework.

→ The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companionship or friendship.

→ ‘Society’ is a broad concept and is used frequently or in day-to-day life.

→ Society denotes an ‘ association’, ‘organization’ or ‘group’.

Characteristics of Society:

• Likeness
• Difference
• Interdependence
• Co-operation
• Normative Nature
• Dynamic

→ Maclver and Page stated that the community possesses a distinctively territorial character. It implies a common soil as well as shared way of life.

→ Community is referred to a group of people living in a definite territory to fulfil their common objectives and needs.

Community includes

• Sense of ‘we-feeling
• Common interdependent life
• Common interests
• Common area

Elements of Community:

1. Locality
2. Community Sentiment

→ The term social group is used to refer to the entire human group as well as it means a small group which consists of two individuals.

→ Human beings are social animals and hence have always lived in social groups.

Social group indicates:

1. Common characteristics
2. Number of people with same goals and expectations
3. Regular social interaction

Characteristics of Social Group:

1. Consists of two or more persons
2. Social interaction is essential
3. Mutual awareness
4. ‘We feeling’ among group
5. Purpose to fulfil certain common interest
6. Has its own norms and rules
7. Dynamic in nature

→ Through various classifications of groups given by sociologists one can understand the diverse nature of social groups.

Types of Social Group:

1. In Group and Out Group
2. Voluntary and Involuntary Group
3. Small and Large Group
4. Primary and Secondary Group

Characteristics of Primary Group:

• Physical Proximity
• Small group
• Relationship is an end in itself
• Permanent relationship
• Informal control
• Face-to- face relationship
• Similar objectives and goals

Characteristics of Secondary Group:

• Large size
• Indirect relations
• Impersonal relations
• Deliberate establishment
• Formal relations

→ The concept of Reference Group is given by Robert Merton.

→ People refer to reference group when evaluating:

• Qualities
• Circumstances
• attitude
• values
• behaviours

Reference Group:

• Informal Group: Family, peer group, etc.
• Formal Group: Labour Unions, Supreme court, etc.

→ Social status, social role and social norms are correlated concepts of every society.

→ Every individual has a certain status and performs their role according to the status (position) in society.

→ There are certain rules and regulations to control societal behaviour, which are known as social norms.

Social Status- One’s position or status according to prestige and power.

Types of Status:

1. Ascribed Status: Age, sex, kinship, race, etc.
2. Achieved Status: Politics, sports, skill, education, etc.

Social Role: One’s behavioural aspects of duties associated with status or position.

Role:

• Role performance
• Role exit
• Role conflict
• Role strain
• Role set

Status and role are complementary to each other. They are two sides of the same coin.

Social Norms – Norms make orders and severs individual as a guide for conduct.

Types of Norms:

1. Folkways
2. Mores
3. Law
   • Customary Law
   • Enacted Law

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India

Shunga Empire:
The Shunga empire was spread from Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in the west, as well as Himalayas in the North to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra was the main capital, Pushyamitra established a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He strengthened his rule in the provinces of Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc.

Later he conquered the lost provinces of Magadhan empire up to Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory over Demetrius is mentioned in ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by Kalidasa.

Rise of Satavahana Empire:
After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty established itself in the north whereas in the south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power. The Mauryan empire created a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.

Initially, the Satavahana rule came to a rise in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later spread in the vast region of Maharashtra, Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in Maharashtra, was the capital of the Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the ‘Andhras’ or Andhrabhrutyas’. According to some scholars, these terms refer to Satavahanas.

Administrative system, literature, art and social life:
Administrative System: The state under the Satavahanas was divided into small provinces and on every province civil and military officials were appointed to administer individual provinces over it. These included civil officials, such as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest unit of administration.

Grama was a source of revenue and also for the recruitment of soldiers during war-like situations. Thus, Grama was an integral part of the central machinery.

Agriculture was the main source of means of subsistence. Along with it many industries and trade flourished under the Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also emerged during this period. The trade and industries were controlled with the help of these shrenis. The shrenis also provided loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished during the Satavahana period. Trade centres like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed during the Satavahana rule.

Literature: During the Satavahana period, learning and art received royal patronage. Prakrit language and literature flourished during Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty, compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’. Gunadhya, a minister in his court, wrote an incomparable text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a Prakrit language called Paishachi. Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on Sanskrit Grammer, named ‘Katantra’.

Art and Architecture: The influence of Persian and Greek sculptural styles during the Mauryan period seems to have decreased during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A new native Indian style emerged in this period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the Sanchi Stupa No. 1 built during this period are excellent examples of this style.

Society: The society of Satavahana period was organised into four varnas. Similarly, during this period, system also became deeply rooted. The intermixture of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed nature of different guilds, need of including foreigners in the social structure were some of the reasons behind it. Apart from that, there were four classes in the society.

The first class consisted of officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’ and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas). ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan province and Maharathi on the plateau area.

The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’ (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan merchant). The third social class consisted of ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade guilds), ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’ (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators), ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders of perfumes).

Glossary:

→ Repelled – To send something back or to push somebody back.

→ Disintegration – The process of losing strength.

→ Hoard – A large quantity.

→ Inscriptions – Words that are written or cut on something.

→ Contemporary – Of the present time.