Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 3 Agents of Erosion

Agents of Erosion:

1. Running Water(River)
2. Sea Waves
3. Wind
4. Glaciers
5. Ground Water

→ Agents of erosion cause various processes when they pick up, move and deposit rock particles. These processes lead to erosional and depositional landforms.

Processes of Erosion:

River-

• Attrition
• Solution
• Downcutting
• Drilling
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Sea Waves-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Solution
• Lateral erosion

Wind-

• Abrasion
• Attrition
• Deflation

Glacier-

• Plucking
• Abrasion
• Downcutting
• Headward erosion
• Lateral erosion

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Transportation :

• Traction : The material acquired by the agents is transported by rolling, pushing and dragging along the surface.
• Saltation : Often the rock materials move forward by leaps and bounds through this process.
• Suspension : Fine light material is carried along with water or air in the upper layer.
• Solution : The material is carried in water in a dissolved state.

Processes of Transportation :

River-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Sea Waves-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension
• Solution

Wind-

• Traction
• Saltation
• Suspension

Glacier-
Traction

Ground Water-
Solution

Processes of Erosion :

• Plucking : The process by which moving ice exerts pressure on majority portion of rocks on bed or along the bank.
• Abrasion : It involves the scratching and polishing of the surface or bedrock by the particles which are moving onto it.
• Attrition: It is when rocks and pebbles bump into each other and break up into smaller fragments.
• Solution : It is when certain types of rocks get eroded as a result of acids in the sea or river water.
• Deflation : The particles which are loosened on the surface are blown away by the wind.
• Drilling : Bedload moves along the running water. As and when this flow encounters an obstacle due to relief on the bed or joints in the bed, the flow tends to develop a circular pattern. This leads to development of a whirl.
• Downcutting : Also called downward erosion is a process of hydraulic action that deepens the channel of a stream or valley by removing material from the stream’s bed or the valley’s floor.
• Headward erosion : It is the backward erosion by river in the source region.
• Lateral erosion : It is the erosion that occurs on the sides of valleys of a river or glacier.

Agents of erosion and landforms :
Factor affecting formation of landforms – climate, type of rocks, intensity of erosion, slope of land and obstacles.

River as an Agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Gorges and Canyons
• V-shaped valley
• Cliffs
• Waterfalls
• Rapids
• Potholes

2. Depositional Features

• Alluvial fans
• Meanders
• Oxbow lakes
• Flood plains
• Natural levees
• Islands
• Deltas
• Estuaries

Sea Water as an Agent of Erosion:

Erosional Features-

• Sea cliffs
• Sea caves
• Sea arch
• Sea stack
• Wave cut platforms

Depositional Features-

• Sea beach
• Lagoon
• Headlands
• Sand spits

Conditions necessary for wind erosion :

• Aridity – In such areas, rate of evaporation is greater than rate of precipitation.
• Sparse vegetation cores or absence of trees.
• Presence of dry loose materials at the surface.
• A wind velocity high enough to pick up and move sediments.

Wind as an agent of Erosion:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Feature

1. Erosional Features:

• Deflation Hallows
• Ventifacts
• Mushroom Rocks
• Yardangs

2. Depositional Feature

• Loess
• Barchans
• Sand Dunes

Karst topography needs three important factors to develop:

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Active movement of underground water
3. Joints

Work of Ground Water:

1. Erosional Features
2. Depositional Features

1. Erosional Features

• Sink Holes
• Caves

2. Depositional Features:

• Stalactite
• Stalagmite
• Columnor Pillars

Work of Glaciers:

1. Erosional Features
2. De positional Features

1. Erosional Features:

• Roche mountonnees
• Cirque
• Arete
• Horn, Matterhorn
• U-Shaped valley, hanging valley

2. De positional Features:

• Drumlin
• Eskers
• Erratic rock

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 12 India, Nations in the Northwest of the Indian Subcontinent and China

Trade and Cultural Relations in the Ancient times:
It is very significant that the Indians travelling or migrating to other countries never tried to impose their culture, religions and political rule on the local people. Wherever they went, they had cultural contact and exchange with the native people and it resulted into the enrichment of the native cultures. The spread of Indian culture in the nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist religion.

The Indian trade with distant lands is mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’, Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’, etc. These texts narrate many stories of the sea travels and adventures of the Indian merchants.

India and Gandhara (Afghanistan and Pakistan):
It is apparent that geographically Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably situated on the trade route that linked India and Central Asia. It had close cultural connections with India from the ancient period of Janapadas till the introduction of Islam. Whether it was the invaders from the Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out by Emperor Ashoka, or the Chinese monks travelling to India, all had to pass through Afghanistan.

Emperor Ashoka’s Period: We have seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka mentions the names of Greek kings, who were his contemporaries. It also mentions that people in their kingdoms were following the path of morality as outlined to his message of Dhammavijaya. Among these kingdoms, it was included v the kingdom of Kamboja in Afghanistan.

Kushana Emperor Kanishka and Post Kushana Period: Kanishka’s empire had spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir in the north and further to Central Asia. Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha (Begram) was an additional capital of the Kushanas, which was located on the silk route at a vantage point. The trade route from Afghanistan to China was under the rule of Kushanas.

The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’ near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another important centre of Buddhism. There are several remains of stupas and viharas scattered over the place. The sculptures found around the stupas are excellent specimens of Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i- Bahi’ is another important place, which is enlisted as ‘World Cultural Heritage.

The government of Afghanistan, with the help of UNESCO and various associations from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland, etc. is working to restore this World Cultural Heritage.

India and China:
The route that links Asia and Europe was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German geographer. The Silk Route runs more than 6000 kilometres. One may have an impression that the Silk Route is an unbroken highway. However, in reality, this route is an intricate web of major and minor lines bifurcating and crossing each other.

It was in the 1st century C.E. that Buddhism began to spread from India to China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China in this period had expanded its empire up to Central Asia. They dominated the Silk Route Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the second king of the Han dynasty had sent his representatives to India.

Glossary:

→ Pagoda – A Buddhist temple in India or South-East Asia.

→ Vantage Point – A place from which you have a good view of something.

→ Sangharama – The residential complex built for the bhikkhus.

→ Mural – A piece of art that is painted on walls.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study the meaning and methods of Representation. We will examine the evolution of Representative Assemblies in England an in India. Next, we will examine channels of representation such as political parties, pressure groups and NGO’s.

Representation:
Meaning: The concept of representation is important in any democracy. In ancient Greek and Roman city-states, there existed directed democracy. City-states such as Athens were of limited geographical area and had a small population. Hence, people there governed themselves. All persons (adult males) who had the right to conduct the affairs of the city-state participated in its decision making.

Today, most countries have large territory and population. Hence, direct democracy is not possible. The form of democracy today is indirect democracy or representative democracy. People elect representatives from among themselves to govern the country for e.g., in India, Members of Parliament (MP’s), Members of State Legislative Assemblies/ Councils (MLA’s, MLC’s), of corporations, etc., are all our representatives.

History Of Representative Democracy:
Representative democracy has its origins in medieval Europe. Till that time, Absolute Monarchies existed in most countries. The Divine Rights of Kings Theory was in application. As time went by, Monarchs in many countries like England started having ‘Representative Assemblies’ which represented the population. Soon, these assemblies asked for a share in the decision-making process of the country leading to conflicts between the monarchs and the assemblies for e.g., during the French Revolution.

Most conflicts ended with reduced power to the monarchs. The ‘Representative Assemblies’, now become ‘Political Representatives’ as they dealt with all government activities. Abraham Lincoln’s definition of a democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people’ aptly sums up the concept of political representation.

After the uprising of 1857, the Queen’s Proclamation (1858) and subsequent Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909) had a few Indians appointed to the National and Provincial Councils. The 1935, Government of India Act, provided for Provincial Assemblies, consisting of elected members in India.

Methods Of Representation:
Methods of representation refer to methods adopted to choose persons in charge of governance.
These include.

• Electoral Method – Persons are directly or indirectly elected by the citizens to govern them as members of representative assemblies e.g., General elections to Lok Sabha.
• Non-electoral Method – Representatives occupy their position though nomination or appointment for e.g., President of India appoints 12 Members to the Rajya Sabha.
• Non-official Method – Civil society represents the people through various pressure groups like trade unions, student groups, etc.

Constituencies And Electoral Systems:
Generally, elections to representative assemblies take place on a geographical basis. The territory is divided into distinct areas (based on population) called constituencies. Citizens living in each constituency have the right to elect their representatives for e.g., Maharashtra has 48 Lok Sabha constituencies and Mumbai city alone has 6 constituencies.

Electoral systems may be classified based on –
(i) How many members need to be elected per constituency?

• Single Member Constituency – only one member is elected
• Multi-Member Constituency – several members can be elected from each constituency.

(ii) How many votes are required to get elected from the constituency?

• Plurality System – The candidate who receives the maximum number of votes is declared as elected for e.g., in the Lok Sabha elections. This is also called First Past the Post system. It is employed in single-member constituencies.
• Majority System – It is necessary to secure a majority of votes (50% or more generally) to be declared as elected for e.g., in Presidential elections in India
• Proportional System – is generally used in multi-member constituencies. The number of candidates of a given political party to be elected depends upon the proportion of votes that the party receives. The types of Proportional Representation include Single Transferable Vote System (used in Legislative Council and Rajya Sabha elections) list system, etc.

Political Parties:
Meaning: Political parties are the most important channels for political representation. They are organized groups, comprising of persons who hold similar views on a variety of issues or have similar objectives. They seek to obtain political power, generally, through the process of elections.

The views of a party taken together are called the party’s ideology. Most parties have a hierarchical organization. At election times, political parties issue ‘Manifestos’ i.e., what policies/programmes they would implement if voted to power. Every party puts up its candidates who contest elections.

Origin Of Political Parties:
Political parties emerged a little after representative assemblies. Members within these assemblies, who held similar views, soon began gathering together to influence policies as they desired. The need for organized groups was felt in representative assemblies to ensure that they commanded a majority to head the government. This was noticed in United Kingdom in the 18th century.

In India, Indian National Congress (INC) was the first political party. It was established in 1885. During the freedom struggle many parties like Muslim League, Communist Party, Hindu Mahasabha, etc. were formed. Many parties were also formed after Independence. Some of these are regional parties like TDP, Shiv Sena, others were formed when they broke away from the main party for e.g., NCP, TMC broke a way from INC while other parties were formed to represent a specific ideology e.g., BJP, Akali Dal, AIMIM or toward specific issues e.g., TRS (Telangana).

Classification Of Political Parties:
In India, political parties are classified as ‘National’ or ‘State’ parties. The Election Commission has set up certain criteria. For a political party be eligible to be recognised as a National party.

• It secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly.
• In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People (Lok Sabha) from any State or States. OR
• It wins at least two percent (2%) seats in the House of People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different States.

At present there are seven National parties i.e. Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Communist Party of India (CPI), Communist Party of India Marxist (CPM), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) and All India Trinamool Congress (TMC).

State-level parties are also called Regional parties since their presence is restricted to one or more states for e.g., Dravida Munnetra Kazhagan (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam AIADMK (Tamil Nadu) or TDP (Andhra Pradesh).

Levels Of Representation And Decision Making:
In India, which is a federation, decision making occurs at both the national and state levels. It also takes place at the local level i.e., in local self-government. Political parties serve as channels of representation at all three levels.

Interest Groups And Pressure Groups:
Interest groups and pressure groups are informal channels that seek to represent the people. A pressure group is an interest group that is organized to influence public opinion and government policy towards the fulfilment of it’s objectives and without active participation in the electoral process.

This includes interest groups in the fields of business such as Federation of India Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI); for labour e.g., Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), Bharatiya Kamgar Sena (BKS), for peasants e.g., Shetkari Sanghatana; for students e.g., Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), National Students Union of India (NSUI). In the USA, pressure groups are also called Lobby Groups.

Non-Government Organization (NGO’s):
Non-Governmental Organizations are another mechanism for representation. They seek to represent and to aid sections of society where the government agencies have been negligent or unsuccessful. Most NGO’s represent a cause and have people with specialized knowledge or strong convictions associated with it. In India, there are numerous NGO’s working for social causes such as for the environment or for underprivileged sections of society such as children, the disabled, women, etc.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions

→ Social institutions refer to a system of well-defined, stable patterns of behaviour. It depends upon the collective activities of people. Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.

→ The Functionalist perspective looks at social institutions as playing a number of specific roles in
facilitating human social life.

→ The Marxist or Conflict perspective holds that all individuals are not placed equally in society.

→ The society comprises various social institutions like family, marriage, education, religion, economy, etc.

→ Family is the most important primary unit of human society. A family is a group of people related by blood.

Functions of Family :

• Socialization
• Regulation of sexual activity
• Emotional security
• Economic stability
• Social Identity

Forms of Family:

Structure
Authority

1. Structure:

• joint family
• Nuclear vamily

2. Authority

• Matriarcha1 family
• Patriarchal family

Twenty first century families:
Family as an institution is significantly changing and many new forms are in the making.

• Single parent fami’y
• Cohabitation
• Step-parenting

Marriage:

• Marriage is a social institution through which family relations are formed. It refers, to a pattern sanctioned by society to enter into sex relations and to procreate.
• Today the concept of marriage is enlarged to include homosexual relations.
• In 1989, Denmark became the first country to formally recognize homosexual marriages.

Forms of Marriage –
Forms of Marriage is Bases on:

1. Number of Partners
2. Rules Governing
3. Social Status

1. Number of Partners:

• Monogamy
• polygamy
  • polyandry
  • Polygyny

2. Rules Governing:

• Endogamy
• Exogamy

3. Social Status

• Hypergamy
• Hypogamy

Family, Kinship and Marriage:

• A family is a group of persons directly linked by kin relations.
• Kinship ties are connections between individuals, established either through marriage or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives.

Economy and Work :

• Economy is a basis social institution which organises production distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Every society has to fulfil material needs in order to maintain itself.
• Human society has evolved through various stages, depending upon the way it evolved mechanisms to adapt to changing material needs.

Three Broad Stages of Transformation of Economy:

1. Agricultural Revolution
2. Industrial Revolution
3. Information Revolution

Changing Nature of Work :

• With advanced industrialization, the proportion of population engaged in agriculture is declining.
• There is also an expansion of service sector in India. One of the main features of modern societies is an enormous expansion of economic interdependence.
• Growing competition between firms and countries make it essential to keep production flexible.

Education :
Modern societies have evolved a distinct institution of education to fulfill basic goals like disseminate ideas and knowledge and to develop skills to use existing knowledge for the betterment of society.

Types of Education:

1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
3. Non-formal Education

Importance of Education:

• Children learn self-discipline
• Instill values of individual achievement
• Gain an understanding of common values and moral beliefs
• Teaches specialised skills needed for a complex modern society

Education and Social Division :
Scholars like Bowles and Gintis argue that workplace inequalities are mirrored in the organization of schools and that the education system reproduces these inequalities. Many studies have pointed out that education as a system also perpetrates gender differences.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology

→ Sociology studies every social phenomenon Therefore, sociology is a complex social science.

→ The concepts of sociology are difficult to understand as they are abstract in nature.

Basic Concepts in Sociology:

1. Society
2. Social Role
3. Community
4. Social Norms
5. Social Group
6. Social Status

→ According to Aristotle, ‘man is a social animal’ and cannot live without society.

→ Man is subjected to some elemental and derived needs that can be satisfied within the societal framework.

→ The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companionship or friendship.

→ ‘Society’ is a broad concept and is used frequently or in day-to-day life.

→ Society denotes an ‘ association’, ‘organization’ or ‘group’.

Characteristics of Society:

• Likeness
• Difference
• Interdependence
• Co-operation
• Normative Nature
• Dynamic

→ Maclver and Page stated that the community possesses a distinctively territorial character. It implies a common soil as well as shared way of life.

→ Community is referred to a group of people living in a definite territory to fulfil their common objectives and needs.

Community includes

• Sense of ‘we-feeling
• Common interdependent life
• Common interests
• Common area

Elements of Community:

1. Locality
2. Community Sentiment

→ The term social group is used to refer to the entire human group as well as it means a small group which consists of two individuals.

→ Human beings are social animals and hence have always lived in social groups.

Social group indicates:

1. Common characteristics
2. Number of people with same goals and expectations
3. Regular social interaction

Characteristics of Social Group:

1. Consists of two or more persons
2. Social interaction is essential
3. Mutual awareness
4. ‘We feeling’ among group
5. Purpose to fulfil certain common interest
6. Has its own norms and rules
7. Dynamic in nature

→ Through various classifications of groups given by sociologists one can understand the diverse nature of social groups.

Types of Social Group:

1. In Group and Out Group
2. Voluntary and Involuntary Group
3. Small and Large Group
4. Primary and Secondary Group

Characteristics of Primary Group:

• Physical Proximity
• Small group
• Relationship is an end in itself
• Permanent relationship
• Informal control
• Face-to- face relationship
• Similar objectives and goals

Characteristics of Secondary Group:

• Large size
• Indirect relations
• Impersonal relations
• Deliberate establishment
• Formal relations

→ The concept of Reference Group is given by Robert Merton.

→ People refer to reference group when evaluating:

• Qualities
• Circumstances
• attitude
• values
• behaviours

Reference Group:

• Informal Group: Family, peer group, etc.
• Formal Group: Labour Unions, Supreme court, etc.

→ Social status, social role and social norms are correlated concepts of every society.

→ Every individual has a certain status and performs their role according to the status (position) in society.

→ There are certain rules and regulations to control societal behaviour, which are known as social norms.

Social Status- One’s position or status according to prestige and power.

Types of Status:

1. Ascribed Status: Age, sex, kinship, race, etc.
2. Achieved Status: Politics, sports, skill, education, etc.

Social Role: One’s behavioural aspects of duties associated with status or position.

Role:

• Role performance
• Role exit
• Role conflict
• Role strain
• Role set

Status and role are complementary to each other. They are two sides of the same coin.

Social Norms – Norms make orders and severs individual as a guide for conduct.

Types of Norms:

1. Folkways
2. Mores
3. Law
   • Customary Law
   • Enacted Law

Maharashtra State Board Class 11th Notes

• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes
• Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes
• Secretarial Practice 11th Commerce Notes
• Organisation of Commerce and Management 11th Notes
• Bookkeeping and Accountancy 11th Notes

Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India

Shunga Empire:
The Shunga empire was spread from Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in the west, as well as Himalayas in the North to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra was the main capital, Pushyamitra established a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He strengthened his rule in the provinces of Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc.

Later he conquered the lost provinces of Magadhan empire up to Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory over Demetrius is mentioned in ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by Kalidasa.

Rise of Satavahana Empire:
After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty established itself in the north whereas in the south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power. The Mauryan empire created a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.

Initially, the Satavahana rule came to a rise in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later spread in the vast region of Maharashtra, Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in Maharashtra, was the capital of the Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the ‘Andhras’ or Andhrabhrutyas’. According to some scholars, these terms refer to Satavahanas.

Administrative system, literature, art and social life:
Administrative System: The state under the Satavahanas was divided into small provinces and on every province civil and military officials were appointed to administer individual provinces over it. These included civil officials, such as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest unit of administration.

Grama was a source of revenue and also for the recruitment of soldiers during war-like situations. Thus, Grama was an integral part of the central machinery.

Agriculture was the main source of means of subsistence. Along with it many industries and trade flourished under the Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also emerged during this period. The trade and industries were controlled with the help of these shrenis. The shrenis also provided loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished during the Satavahana period. Trade centres like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed during the Satavahana rule.

Literature: During the Satavahana period, learning and art received royal patronage. Prakrit language and literature flourished during Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty, compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’. Gunadhya, a minister in his court, wrote an incomparable text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a Prakrit language called Paishachi. Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on Sanskrit Grammer, named ‘Katantra’.

Art and Architecture: The influence of Persian and Greek sculptural styles during the Mauryan period seems to have decreased during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A new native Indian style emerged in this period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the Sanchi Stupa No. 1 built during this period are excellent examples of this style.

Society: The society of Satavahana period was organised into four varnas. Similarly, during this period, system also became deeply rooted. The intermixture of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed nature of different guilds, need of including foreigners in the social structure were some of the reasons behind it. Apart from that, there were four classes in the society.

The first class consisted of officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’ and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas). ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan province and Maharathi on the plateau area.

The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’ (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan merchant). The third social class consisted of ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade guilds), ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’ (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators), ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders of perfumes).

Glossary:

→ Repelled – To send something back or to push somebody back.

→ Disintegration – The process of losing strength.

→ Hoard – A large quantity.

→ Inscriptions – Words that are written or cut on something.

→ Contemporary – Of the present time.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting

→ Types of Rocks:

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic

• Igneous : These rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of molten magma.
• Sedimentary : These rocks are formed due to the deposition of layers of organic and inorganic matter including dead remains of plants and animals and sand, silt, clay, gravel, etc.
  Hardening and compaction.
• Metamorphic : These rocks are formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to immense heat and pressure.

→ Weathering:
Weathering is a process of breaking down of rocks due to physical or chemical changes in the rocks.

→ Types of Weathering:

1. Physical / Mechanical:

• Freeze and thaw
• Granular weathering
• Shattering
• Block disintegration
• Exfoliation

2. Chemical:

• Oxidation
• Carbonation
• Crystallization

3. Biological:

• Floral weathering
• Faunal weathering
• Anthropogenic weathering

→ Factors such as water, heat and pressure can cause both physical and chemical weathering.

→ Freeze and thaw weathering: It are particularly effective in high and mid latitudes and in mountainous areas. Where the diurnal range of temperature is high, water inside the crack’s freezes during night time and melts during day time. When water freezes its volume increases and it exerts pressure on walls of rocks and the cracks widen and eventually the rock breaks.

→ Granular disintegration due to temperature change: The coarse-grained rocks are affected in desert areas. These granules are of different colours and they absorb insolation differently. Differential expansion and contraction cause stress on rocks and eventually it disintegrates into smaller particles.

→ Shattering due to rain shower and heat: The outer shells of the rocks are shattered due to sudden light showers in hot climatic region mainly hot deserts.

→ Block disintegration due to heat: In rocks such as granite which have joints, heat can cause weathering by breaking the rocks along the joints into blocks.

→ Exfoliation: The exposed part of the rock heats more, while the inner part is comparatively cooler. As a result, the outer layers of the rocks fall apart from the main rock.

→ Oxidation: Oxygen in the air and water reacts with certain elements in the minerals inside the rock. In this process the minerals in the rocks react with oxygen in the air and water.

→ Carbonation: It involves reaction of carbon dioxide with minerals in the soil. The decomposition of dead matter produces C02 which reacts with minerals.

→ Crystallization: The salts of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium etc., present in the rocks have a tendency to expand due to their thermal properties. This leads to crystallization of salts and individual grains split from the main rocks which fall off at the end. It is dominant in coastal areas with alternate dry and wet periods.

→ Biological Weathering : This is caused because of roots of plants, which penetrates into cracks. Microorganism such as algae, moss, lichens and bacteria grow on the rock surface and produce chemicals that can break the rock.

→ Certain burrowing animals like rats, moles etc. are responsible for breaking of rocks.

→ Anthropological Weathering : Man is a biological agent affecting weathering, mining, blasting of hills and ridges for constructions of roads, railways, dams causing disintegration of rocks.

→ Importance of Weathering:

• It prepares the way for formation of soils and various landforms that we see on earth.
• It helps in enrichment and concentration of ores.

→ Mass Movement or Mass Wasting :
It is the down slope movement of loose mixture of soil, land rock particles by the force of gravity

→ Factors Responsible for Mass Movement:

1. Weak Materials and structures
2. Relief and slope
3. Water
4. Gravity

→ Types of Mass Movements:

1. Fall or topple
2. Flows
3. Slide
4. Creep

1. Fall or topple:
Free fall of rocks

2. Flows:
Mixture of water, rock and weathered material

3. Slide:
Soil section or rock suddenly moves down a slope

4. Creep:
Slow mass movement

→ Different Types of Material Flow:

1. Creep
2. Slowest
3. Only top and base

1. Creep-

• Slowest
• Only top and base

2. Rock fall-

• Rapid
• Mainly in rocky areas

3. Earth flow-

• Rapid or slow
• Water accumulates
• Hillsides in humid regions

4. Solifluction-
Downhill creep in periglacial or alpine regions

5. Landslide-

• Moderately steep
• Rocks or debris

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period

Rise of Magadha Empire:
Magadha was an important kingdom among the Mahajanapadas that existed in ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, availability of commercial markets etc., were the reasons for the rise of Magadha as empire. In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka dynasty ruled over Magadha.

Nanda and Mauryan Empire:
Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan empire established by Ajatashatru was further expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread up to Nanded in the South, whereas some scholars think that it was extended up to Mysore.

On this basis it can be said that Mahapadma Nanda was the first great emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his period, the state treasury was enormously rich. His military was also very huge. It consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots.

Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was the first well organised and strongly controlled empire in the history of India. Religious texts and other literature, inscriptions, coins, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us to clearly understand the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of this period.

The Mauryan empire had spread on a large region of the Indian sub-continent and was controlled by a central power. The Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of the political system.

Emperor Ashoka: Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan empire after the death of Bindusara. He got himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and pillar inscriptions. During the early period of his rule, Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom.

He attacked Kalinga and conquered it. There was a great human loss in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The destruction caused due to the Kalinga War brought about a great change in the mind of Ashoka.

Administrative system, trade, literature, art and architecture, social life:
Administrative system: The nature of administrative system during the Mauryan period is clearly understood with the help of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya was a valiant king and an efficient administrator.

He set up a defined mechanism of state administration, which suited the economic conditions and the needs of the Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors created a unified empire. At the same time, they devised a decentralised administrative system for efficient functioning of the vast empire.

Trade: There was an increase in revenue due to well-organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a tax to be given in the scale of the land under cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax on production. Agricultural land and the tax acquired from the agricultural production was the basic foundation of the administrative system.

Industries gained momentum during this period. Cloth production was the most important industry. Apart from that metallurgy, carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and many such professions began.

Literature: Literature reflects the thought process of the people and the political, social, economic and religious conditions. During the Mauryan period, along with the literature in Sanskrit language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi literature in Prakrit language is also seen. For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, literature was created in Prakrit language.

The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. The world famous work of Panini’s Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in Sanskrit literature.

Art and architecture: After the establishment of Mauryan rule, there was happiness, peace, prosperity and good governance. Mauryan art is the beginning of ancient Indian architecture and the sculptural art. It appears that, during the Mauryan period, the artists had acquired the skill of cutting and carving the stone. In both, the skill of a specific expression of art and the technique of mirror polish of the stone is seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’.

During this period stone statues of Yaksha and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues of Yakshi are beautiful and finely carved. The famous Chauri bearer of Didarganj is supposed to be one of such statue. The Yaksha statues in Parkham and the female images at Besnagar and Patna of this period are exhibited in the Mathura museum.

Glossary:

→ Perennial – Lasting or existing for a long or infinite time.
→ Matrimonial – Related to marriage.
→ Expansionist policy – Relating to territorial or economic expansion.
→ Mahaparinibbana – Refers to the ultimate state of Nirvana (everlasting peace).

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice

Introduction:
This chapter deals with concepts of Equality and Justice which are concerned with the social order.
We will focus on the meaning, facets, importance and types of equality. We will also study the meaning and
types of justice. We will also look at the concepts of equality and justice in the Indian context.

Equality:
Meaning: Equality is an important ideal in society. Equality does not mean uniformity. It signifies that • all human beings have an equal worth, irrespective of their ethnicity, religion, caste, etc. Today, equality is looked at as a political goal as well as the basis of Liberty and Justice. It has a moral and collective dimension as it includes empathy and tolerance.

Natural inequalities are a reality since humans are not equal in physical or intellectual aspects. The struggle for equality is to do away with the restrictions and burdens of man-made inequalities that are created on the basis of religion, caste, race, status, wealth, etc. Equality is the attempt to create conditions where every individual is given equal opportunity to develop and progress.

Thus, equality is a rational concept. Laski explains it as “fundamentally, a levelling progress”.
The facets of equality are:

• Absence of special privileges to or of discriminations against anyone in the matter of socio-economic and political rights. No person or group should have special conditions that are denied to a large majority. For e.g., In the caste hierarchy, the lower castes were discriminated against while upper castes flourished as they had special status and privileges.
• Equality before law and equal protection of the law – The law is equally applicable to everyone irrespective of economic or social status, race, creed, etc.
• Equality of opportunity – To enhance one’s potential and to develop one’s personality irrespective of considerations like ethnicity, gender, community, etc. Deprived sections must have provisions for education, employment and social wellbeing to enable fair competition with others.
• Absolute equality is neither possible nor desirable as equality in no way implies uniformity.

History Of Equality:
The idea of equality has been studied since ancient Greek times, in the context of struggles against absolute monarchy and unequal social conditions. In his work ‘The Politics, Aristotle advocated equality before law and explained the correlation between equality and justice.

His idea of equality was with reference to the ruler and the ruled whom he considered naturally unequal on basis of inequality in intellectual abilities. Thomas Hobbes in his book ‘Leviathan’ explained that all persons must be treated as equals in spite of existing physical or intellectual inequalities.

Tocqueville’s idea of equality developed in the process of abolition of the feudal system and establishment of democracy. Rousseau analyzed natural inequalities (due to differences in physical strength, intellectual abilities, etc.) and man-made inequalities (arising due to private property, division of labour and exploitation by the rich). Equality could be brought about by natural law.

Karl Marx propounded the socialist idea of equality i.e. it can be achieved by creating a ‘classless society. He gave importance to emancipation of workers from exploitation and to equitable distribution of the means of production.

Indian Context:
Many sections of Indian society exhibits obstacles to social equality arising due to caste hierarchy and subsequent discrimination as well as due to a patriarchal system. Most social reformers have worked towards creation of a just society. Mahatma Phule focused on elimination of discriminations based on caste and gender.

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade worked in areas of women’s rights and promoting widow remarriage.
Mahatma Gandhi focused on socio-economic and gender equality. Dr. Babasaheh Amhedkar also focused on social, cultural, political and economic equality through elimination of the caste system.

Importance Of Equality:

• Equality is necessary to uphold the dignity of the individual.
• It is necessary to create a just society.
• It is necessary to promote mutual respect among members of a society.
• It helps to bring about fraternity.
• Liberty and equality are the cornerstones of a democracy.

Types Of Equality:
→ Natural Equality considers that all human beings are equal though they differ in abilities. Every person should get equal opportunity to develop his/her potential. Early Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle did not believe in natural equality. However, thinkers like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau explained about natural equality in the ‘State of Nature’.

→ Social Equality refers to absence of unreasonable social barriers or discrimination such as those based on race, religion, caste, gender, status, etc. No person must be viewed as superior or inferior merely on the basis of birth, ethnicity or social position.

→ However, social inequality is prevalent all over the world even today. Legislations, education and economic progress can help to reduce social inequality for e.g., in India Article 17 of the constitution deals with the abolition of untouchability.

→ Civil Equality means that civil rights are equally available to all individuals. There is equality before law and equal protection of the law. However, special laws made for the protection or upliftment of weaker sections of society such as tribals, backward classes, women, etc., do not violate the principle of equality.

→ Political Equality is possible only in a democracy. It refers to the right of citizens to participate in the affairs of the state. It is based on the principle of political participation and Universal Adult Franchise.

→ Economic Equality – When wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few (economic inequality), then political power and social ranking is also monopolized by them, resulting in exploitation of the underprivileged sections of society. Economic equality does not imply equal distribution of wealth or equal income irrespective of the nature of work.

Economic equality implies to the following –

• Reduction in wide disparities of wealth.
• Prevention of concentration of wealth and income in the hands of a few persons.
• Absence of any kind of economic exploitation, denial or subjugation.
• Availability of essential goods and services i.e. minimum needs must be satisfied first.
• Reasonable economic opportunities for individuals to develop themselves and to progress.
• Adequate scope for work and for decent wages.

Justice:
Meaning: Justice implies righteousness, which is used as a basis for judging values and conduct. It is an ancient concept. Greek philosopher, Socrates considered justice as a political virtue. Plato identified justice with truth and morality while Aristotle expressed that justice can be achieved in a society only when there is equality and balance. In ancient India, justice was associated with the concept of ‘Dharma’.

Types of Justice:
The term justice refers to a state of affairs in which every individual has exactly those burdens and benefits which are due to him.

Natural Justice – This concept is linked to the very existence of human beings and was advocated by ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Humans can intrinsically and universally understand concepts of right and wrong. Hence there is no need for man-made law.

Legal Justice – John Austina considered law as a means to eliminate injustice and to establish a just society. Justice is a precondition to law.

Social Justice – The concept of social justice implies equal social opportunities to every individual to progress to the fullest possible extent. Social justice is reformative i.e., it aims at a revision of the social order.

It involves eradication of existing social evils. Social justice is also distributive i.e., available resources should be equitably distributed to ensure social welfare. It is not just related to individuals or groups, but to society at large.

Social justice is dynamic i.e. it modifies according to changing needs and situations.
The two approaches of social justice are

1. Procedural justice advocated by Nozick i.e., everyone should be treated equally before law and proper legal procedures must be followed
2. Social justice propagated by Marx, Rawls and Dr. Ambedkar. According to Karl Marx, the state is an instrument of exploitation of the workers and ‘have-nots’. Transformation of a capitalist system into a socialist system will ensure an equitable distribution of resources. Rawls advocated the concept of distributive justice and the principle of fairness.