Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become aware of and understand the world around us. It includes processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size, movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence, motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement, etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.

Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation. In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning meaning to information received about the environment based on the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:
Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize top-down processing, our ability to understand information is influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:
Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together. Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path. Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involves the manipulation of information.

The core elements of thinking are –

• Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
• Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes, acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to form more complex concepts.
• Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them.
• Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

• Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the problem correctly.
• Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for possible solutions to the problem.
• Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers to be the most effective solution.
• Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution – The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results, he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The period helps to work out the problem without consciously thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

• It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
• Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in muscular movements.
• Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:
Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F. Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:
Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:
Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision making, etc.

Glossary:

→  Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→  Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past experiences and memory and helps in perception and interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental representation and manipulation of information.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Personality

Meaning Of Personality:
The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which was used to refer to masks worn by actors during a stage performance, Thus, the meaning of personality was interpreted as ‘projected behaviour’ of an individual.

According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determines his unique adjustments to the environment.”

Factors Affecting Personality:
Personality is shaped by biological factors like heredity and endocrine glands and by psychosocial factors like family, peer groups, school and culture.

Heredity – It implies the genetic inheritance of an individual. Heredity affects the physical characteristics, such as height, physique, etc. It also influences the self-concept which in turn influences personality.

Endocrine glands – Personality is shaped by endocrine glands like pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads, etc. Over secretion or under secretion of hormones produced by these glands can adversely affect our personality.

Family – As the first agency of socialization, the family exerts a strong influence on personality. Aspects of family such as family structure, atmosphere, and relationships, family interactions and ‘ childrearing practices influence personality, for e.g., if parents show rejection or overprotection, etc., towards the child, it may leads to low self-esteem and adverse effects on the personality.

Peer group – It refers to individuals of the same age group, e.g., classmates or sharing the same interests, e.g., members of a sports club. Influence of the peer group is most noticed in adolescence since it serves as a reference group.

The influence of peer group on the person may be positive such as developing healthy gender attitudes, skills of communication, etc., or it may be negative e.g., developing aggressive tendencies, prejudices, etc.

School – Various aspects of school such as teaching-learning process, academic and co-curricular facilities, role of the teachers, school location, management and discipline, etc., influence the child’s personality, for e.g., teachers who are well qualified, creative, build a rapport with the students, tend to motivate students and help to develop a good personality.

Mass media – It includes print media such as newspapers, audio-visual media such as T.V., and new media such as Internet, etc. Media is a source of information, education, entertainment and even socialization. It has a considerable effect on our value system, behaviour patterns and personality. However, excessive dependence on media may lead to egocentrism, poor academic performance, sleep disturbance, etc.

Cultural factors – Culture refers to the customs, values and social behaviour of a particular society. Every culture has its own set of beliefs, norms, expectations, etc., which influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of its members.

Perspectives Of Studying Personality:

Perspective	Assumption	Main Psychologists
(1) Psychoanalytic	Early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind play a role in personality development.	Sigmund Freud
(2) Humanistic	Free will and psychological growth are important in personality development.	Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
(3) Trait	Every individual possesses an unique set of traits that determine personality.	Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell
(4) Type	Every individual has an unique personality type based on his/her physique, temperament and mental characteristics.	William Sheldon
(5) Social	Cognitive Observational learning and cognitive processes play a role in personality development.	Albert Bandura

Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality:
Carl Jung classified individuals into introverts and extroverts, based on the characteristics exhibited by them.

Characteristics of introverts are :

• they tend to look within themselves for stimulation
• they are shy, reserved, avoid social interactions
• they choose careers and hobbies that do not involve much social contact
• they may be sensitive to criticism.

Characteristics of extroverts are:

• they depend on external stimulation and evaluate themselves based on impressions of others
• they tend to be outgoing, cheerful, optimistic
• they choose careers and hobbies that bring them in contact with others
• they tend to be enthusiastic, and full of energy.

NOTE: In real life, most individuals tend to exhibit a blend of traits of introverts and extroverts, i.e., ambiverts.

Allport’s Theory of Personality:
A trait is a relatively enduring and consistent way of thinking, feeling and acting. It is some distinctive characteristic of the person that leads him/her to behave in more or less consistent ways across situations and over a period of time.
Allport categorised traits as :

Cardinal Traits – It is a single trait that dominates the individual’s personality. Every action of the person can be traced to the influence of this trait, for e.g., in case of Gandhiji honesty was the cardinal trait, in case of Napoleon it was ambition.

Central Traits – These traits are ‘core’ or ‘basic’ characteristics that form the building blocks of personality. There are about 5-10 traits such as sensitivity, sociability, diligence, etc., that can best describe an individual’s personality.

Secondary Traits – These traits play a minor role in personality as they appear only in specific situations or under specific circumstances. They are sometimes related to preferences or attitudes.

Five-factor Model of Personality (OCEAN):
The Big Five Theory, based on the trait perspective was proposed by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
The five broad trait factors are –

Openness to Experience – People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, imaginative, appreciative of art, sensitive to beauty. They sometimes tend to think and act in nonconforming, adventurous ways.

Conscientiousness – It concerns the way in which people control, regulate and direct their impulses. People high in conscientiousness are hardworking, disciplined, responsible, dependable, etc., while those low on conscientiousness tend to be careless, unorganised, spontaneous, undisciplined, etc.

Extroversion – People high on this trait are assertive, talkative, sociable, enthusiastic, etc., while those low on extroversion tend to be shy, reserved, avoid social interactions, etc.

Agreeableness – It refers to the ability of a person to get along with others and show a concern for social harmony. People high on this trait tend to be friendly, cooperative, generous and believe that people are basically decent and trustworthy.

Neuroticism – It refers to a tendency to experience negative emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression more intensely and for longer periods than most people. Those who score high on neuroticism tend to be irritable, fearful, emotionally unstable and interpret ordinary situations as threatening and hopeless.

Measurement Of Personality:
Personality can be assessed using techniques such as Self Report Measures (Inventories), Behavioural Analysis Techniques and Projective Techniques.

Behavioural Analysis Techniques:
Behavioural analysis (techniques) such as Interview and Observation can provide information about an individual’s personality in a variety of situations.

Interview – It is a process in which the interviewer collects information about the personality of an interviewee by asking him/her specific questions. The main types of interview depending on the purpose of assessment are Structured interview and unstructured interview

Structured interview – The number, type and sequence of questions to be asked in the interview are pre-determined. The answers expected are also specific. This type of interview is used where exact quantification is required, for e.g., industrial psychologists use structured interviews to select employees for a job.

Unstructured interview – The type and sequence of questions to be asked by the interviewer are not pre-determined. Detailed answers can be given and scoring is often subjective. It is employed by clinical psychologists, counsellors, etc.

Observation – The types of observation include Naturalistic observation, Laboratory observation, Participant observation, Non-participant observation, etc. This method is useful only when there is a trained observer, clear objectives and adequate guidelines to carry out the observations.

Self-Report Measures (Inventories):
The individual provides information about his/her personality by responding to statements questions on the inventory, for e.g., Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PFQ), etc. Responses are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms that are developed for the test.

Projective Techniques:
Projective techniques emerged from the psychoanalytic perspective. The individual responds freely to relatively unstructured or ambiguous stimuli/material. It is assumed that individuals project their own personality onto these stimuli, often revealing personal conflicts, coping styles, etc. Projective techniques cannot be scored in an objective manner.

They use various materials like ink-blots, ambiguous pictures, incomplete sentences, word associations, etc. Main projective techniques include Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Tests, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Sentence Completion Test, etc.

Glossary:

→  Cardinal traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to a trait that is so powerful and pervasive that almost every act of the individual is influenced by and can be traced back to it.

→ Central traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to relatively general characteristics of an individual that apply to most circumstances.

→ Extrovert – An individual who is social, outgoing and openly expressive prefers social interactions.

→ Introvert – An individual who is reserved, quiet and prefers working independently.

→ Neuroticism – One of the personality factors in the Big Five Factor Model characterised by the tendency to experience negative emotions such as nervousness, tension and worry.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in research.

→ Trait approach – According to this perspective every individual possess specific characteristics and patterns of behaviour that shape personality.

→ Type approach – According to this perspective individuals are classified into groups based on certain characteristics which shape personality.

→ Rating Scale – An instrument in which a respondent gives a numeric value (i.e.rates) to an object or stimulus.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research study that consists of a series of questions that is used to collect information from the participants.
→ Projective methods – They are techniques which use vague or ambiguous stimuli which allow the individual to reveal their personality through their unique responses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Story of Psychology

Introduction:

• Human behaviour is full of diversity.
• Psychology studies different forms of emotions, behaviour and moods of human beings.

History of Psychology:

• Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural aspects of mankind.
• The word Psychology is derived from Greek words Psyche and Logos.
• Plato believed that knowledge is innate.
• John Locke thought that each child is born as an ‘empty slate’.
• Wilhelm Wundt introduced the term ‘conscious experience’ and established first Psychological laboratory.
• Dr. Sigmund Freud defined Psychology as the study of the unconscious.
• Latest definition of Psychology is ‘The study of human behaviour and mental processes.

Study of behaviour:

• John B. Watson redefined Psychology as a Science of human behaviour.
• John B. Watson developed the S-O-R Model.

Study of Cognition:

1. During 1950-1960s, focus of Psychology shifted to cognitive processes.
2. Cognitive Psychology is the study of processes like perception, thinking, memory and other higher-order activities.

Psychology in India:
During 1916 to 1989 there was Professional development of Psychology in India.

Psychology: Indian Perspective:

• Upanishads: Explain the self and personality structure with the help of kosha.
• Five Koshas: Annamaya kosha, Pranmaya kosha, Manomaya kosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha and Anandmaya kosha.
• Ayurveda has given 3 types of Doshas and Gunas.
• Three Doshas known as Kapha, Vata and Pitta determine Prakruti (characteristics) of human beings.
• Three types of Gunas: Sattva Guna, Rajas Guna, Tamas Guna explain human temperament.
• Sage Patanjali explained a deep thought about Psychology in ‘Yogsutra’ and developed the
  theory of ‘Ashtangyoga’.
• Eight aspects of Ashtangyoga are Yama, Niyama, Aasana, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi.

Goals of Psychology:
The four main goals of Psychology are:

1. Describe: What is happening?
2. Explanation: Why it is happening?
3. Prediction: What will happen next?
4. Control: How can it be changed?

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 10 Economic Planning in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 10 Economic Planning in India

→ Economic Planning in India:

• Responsible for formulation of economic plans
• Established by Government of India in 1950
• Consists of experts in banking, finance, etc.
• The Prime Minister acts as Ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission

→ Meaning And Definition Of Economic Planning:

(1) Economic planning is –

• a time bound programme
• to achieve certain objectives
• with the help of available resources
• by the planning authority.

(2) Dr. H. D. Dickinson
Economic planning is making of major economic decisions such as –

• What and how much to produce.
• When and where to produce
• To whom it is to be allocated

(3) Mrs. Barbara Wooten
“Planning is a conscious and deliberate choice of economic priorities by some public authority

→ Features of Economic Planning:

1. Central Planning Authority
2. A Survey
3. Objectives
4. Priorities and Targets
5. Mobilisation of Resources
6. Plan Period
7. Evaluation
8. Continuous Process
9. Co-ordination
10. Flexibility

→ 12th Five Year Plan (2012 – 2017):
↓
Sustainable Growth
↓
Targets Of 12th Five Year Plan:

1. Economic Growth:

• To achieve real GDP growth rate at 8%.
• To achieve agriculture growth rate at 4%.
• To achieve manufacturing or industrial growth rate at 10%.
• To achieve higher average growth rate for every State.

2. Poverty And Employment:

• To reduce head-count ratio of poverty.
• To create new work opportunities in the non-farm sector.

3. Education:

• To increase mean years of schooling to 7 years.
• To provide access to higher education.
• To eliminate gender and social gap in school.

4. Health:

• To reduce total fertility rate.
• To reduce malnutrition among children.

5. Infrastructure:

• To increase investment in infrastructure.
• To connect villages with all weather roads.
• To increase rural television and telephone density.

6. Environment and Sustainability:
To increase green cover by 1 million hectare.

7. Service Delivery:

• To provide access to banking services to households.
• To shift subsidies to direct cash transfer through Aadhar card.

→ Niti Aayog (National Institution For Transforming India):

• Formation of NITI Aayog was an innovative and remarkable step to reinforce the principles of federalism and decentralisation of power.
• Accelerate economic growth and development.
• Think – Tank Functions :
  • aims to evolve a sha vision of national development with the active involvement of state.
  • Co-operative federalism

→ Pillars of Niti Aayog:

• Vision Document of India
• Appraisal Document
• Transforming India: Lecture series
• Doubling of Farmers’ Income
• Global Entrepreneurship Summit 2017
• Outcome Budget and Output-Outcome Framework.
• Launching of Programme.

→ Structure Of Niti Aayog:

1. Governing Council

• Chief ministers of all States
• Governors of Union Territories

2. Regional Councils:
to address specific issues and contingencies impact on more than one state

3. Special Invitees
Experts, specialists, practitioners nominated by Prime Minister.

4. Organizational Framework

• Chairperson : Prime Minister of India
• Vice Chairperson: appointed by the Prime Minister.
  Full time members – 5
  Part time members – 2
• Ex-officio Members Maximum of 4 members from Council of Ministers, nominated by the Prime Minister.
• Chief Executive Officer (CEO) appointed by the Prime Minister for fixed period in the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
• Secretariat (if necessary)

→ Functions Of Niti Aayog:

• Shared National Agenda
• States’ Best Friend at the Centre
• Decentralized Planning
• Knowledge and Innovation Hub
• Monitoring and Evaluation
• Co-operative and Competitive Federalism

Others Functions :

• Inter consultancy
• Conflict Resolution
• Technological upgradation

Word Meaning:

designated – to appoint; comprehension – overall/including all; conscious – aware; deliberate – purpose; priorities – great importance; accelerating – to speed up; attainment – to achieve; varies – to differ; appraisal – to judge something; incorporate – include; implementation – to carry out; sustainable – to be maintained; opportunities – openings; eliminate – to remove; malnutrition – lack of proper food for necessary growth and health; beneficiaries – a person who gets benefits; reinforce – to promote; federation – government system; decentralisation – transfer of authority; sanctioned – to approve; premier – top most; contingencies – emergency; championing – to promote; consultancy – professional practitioner giving expert advice; state of the art – modern; replication – to copy something; rigorous – strict; metrics – a standard; bottlenecks – blockage.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 16 Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period) students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 16 Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period)

Contribution of Sants:
Superstition and rituals ruled at large in medieval Indian society. People had become fatalistic and inert. The condition of the common people was miserable. These were the times when the saints in Maharashtra made efforts to bring the masses back to life. In Maharashtra, the tradition of saints, which began with Chakradhar Swami, Sant Namdev, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Eknath, Sant Tukaram, and Samarth Ramdas. It was continued by sants coming from various strata of the society.

Foundation and Expansion of Swarajya:
In the first half of the 17th century, Nizamshahi and Adilshahi had established their rule in Maharashtra. Many eminent Maratha sardars flourished under their rule. They held Jahagirs in the remote regions of the Sahyadris. The difficult terrain of Sahyadri allowed them to operate independently. Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent Sardar in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of Nizamshahi’s rule, he accepted the rank of a Mansabdar in the Adilshahi court.

The concept of Swarajya was visualized by Shahajiraje and it was turned into reality by Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj laid the foundation of Swarajya from the Mawal region. Several factors like the topography of Maharashtra, valour of the local Mawalas, the administrative and military experience gained by the Maratha sardars while working with Nizamshahi, and Adilshahi and above all these the able leadership of Chh. Shivaji Maharaj could make it possible.

Chh. Shivaji Maharaj had anticipated the intentions of Afzalkhan, who had taken up the challenge of killing Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. He met Afzalkhan at Pratapgad. As expected Afzalkhan attempted treachery but Chh. Shivaji Maharaj was well prepared and killed Afzalkhan in self-defense. Afzalkhan’s huge army was set on the run and huge booty and weapons were collected left behind by them. This made Swarajya’s treasury richer.

Maratha War of Independence:
After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was coronated as the King of Swarajya. During his reign, a constant conflict continued with the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s rebellious son Akbar had established friendly relations with Sambhaji Maharaj. Enraged by this Aurangzeb came down to Deccan along with a huge army and able sardars, who were veterans of warfare. For the next 25 years, he camped in Maharashtra and fought against the Marathas.

After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj took over the reins at Raigad. Aurangzeb sent Zulfikar Khan to seize the fort of Raigad. Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, Maharani Tarabai, Maharani Yesubai (Queen of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj) and her son Prince Shahu were staying at Rajgad.

After the death of Rajaram Maharaj (March, 1700 C.E.), his wife Maharani Tarabai continued to fight against Aurangzeb. Maharani Tarabai led the Swarajya movement under extremely unfavourable conditions. She single-handedly took charge of the administration and fought for Swarajya for twenty-five years with the help of her sardars.

Administrative System established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj:
The regions in Maharashtra including Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sindhudurga, Ratnagiri, Raigad; Belgaum, Karwar, Dharwad in Karnataka; some regions of Andhra, Jinji and Vellore in Tamil Nadu comprised Swarajya. Chh. Shivaji Maharaj set up an ideal administrative system for the smooth running of Swarajya’s affairs.

The formation of the Ashtapradhan Mandal (council of eight ministers) and its growth took place along with the expansion of the kingdom. After coronation, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj created special posts of Ashtapradhans. It included ‘Peshwa’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Sachiv’, ‘Mantri’, ‘Senapati, ‘Sumant’, ‘Nyayadhish’ and ‘Panditrao’.

There was a special officer called ‘Darakdar’ appointed to look after every department of the ministry. Other officers were ‘Diwan’ (Secretary) ‘Majumdar’ (Auditor and Accountant). ‘Phadnis’ (Deputy Auditor), ‘Sabnis’ (Office in-charge), ‘Karkhanis’ (Commissary), ‘Chitnis’ (Correspondence Clerk), ‘Jamdar’ (Treasurer), ‘Potdar’ (Assay Master) etc.

Release of Shahu Maharaj:
The Mughals continued their efforts to defeat the Marathas, even after the death of Aurangzeb. For that purpose they adopted the strategy of dividing the Marathas. They released Shahu Maharaj from captivity in 1707 C.E. After his release there was a conflict between Maharani Tarabai and Shahu Maharaj. Shahu Maharaj won the ensuing battle. Balaji Vishwanath played an important role on behalf of Shahu Maharaj and later he was appointed as Peshwa.

Peshwa Period:
After Balaji Vishwanath, his son, Bajirao I was appointed as the Peshwa. He expanded the Maratha empire upto Malwa, Rajasthan and Bundelkhand. He defeated the Nizam. After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias Nanasaheb was appointed as the Peshwa. Madhavrao Peshwa tried to re-establish the Maratha power. The defeat in Panipat was not just a political defeat but it also lowered the morale of the Marathas greatly.

Madhavrao Peshwa tried to elevate the spirits of Marathas as well as re-establish the Maratha power in the north. The Marathas were successful in overcoming the great defeat at Panipat and create a politically strong position for themselves in the politics of the north.
Malharrao was the founder of the Holkar State at Indore. He served the Maratha power for a long time.

Art, architecture, literature:
Art: The development of Maratha miniature paintings is seen through illustrations on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra and patrikas. The same style is maintained in the glass paintings as well. Illustrated manuscripts of Sanskrit texts such as ‘Bhagvat Gita’, ‘Devi Saptashati’, ‘Bhagvat Purana’ as well as Marathi texts such as ‘Dnyaneshwari’ (Bhavarthadipika), ‘Shivaleelamrut’, ‘Pandavapratap’ etc., are available. The paintings of Dashavatara are included in them.

The wooden stands of the pothis have paintings of various deities such as Ganapati, Riddhi-siddhi, Ramapanchayatana, Gopalkrishna, Vishnulakshmi in dark red, green and yellow colours. The miniature paintings include human portraits and themes like raga mala, talamala, processions etc.

Architecture: Chh. Shivaji Maharaj gave priority to build forts. The tradition of building forts was prevalent in the Deccan in the last three centuries. This tradition proved to be of advantage to Chh. Shivaji Maharaj. The required expertise of maintaining forts was easily available to him. The Kasaba temple in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai.

During the Peshwa period, the Maratha kingdom regained its prosperity and all forms of art and architecture once again received patronage. Pune, Satara and Nashik developed into big cities. These cities had well-paved roads, wadas on both sides of the road and arched gates at intervals. The construction of temples began on a large scale during the later Peshwa period.

These temples were of three types. Examples of the temple architecture of this period are found at Saswad (‘Vateshwar’, ‘Sangameshwar’), Mahuli (‘Vishweshwar’), Jejuri etc. These are huge in size.

Literature: Marathi literature developed greatly during this period. Sant Tukaram of this period was a poet of the Warkari sect. Samarth Ramdas wrote ‘Dasbodh’ and ‘Manache Shlok’ in Marathi. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj got the ‘Rajyavyavaharakosha’ prepared which was a compilation of Sanskrit lexicon for Persian terms.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was a great writer and Sanskrit scholar. The Sanskrit text ‘Budhabhushan’ was written by him. This text is an overview of ancient texts on polity. Apart from Sanskrit, he also knew many other languages. He wrote texts in Brij language namely ‘Nayikabhed’, ‘Nakhshikh’ and ‘Satasattak’.

Trade, industries and social life:
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was aware of the importance of a flourishing trade for the economic well-being of the state. He encouraged the traders and merchants by creating Peths (market places). ‘Shete’ and ‘Mahajan’ were the officers who supervised the transaction of these Peths. Chaul, Rajapur, Dabhol, Kelshi, Ratnagiri were some of the important ports and trade centres of this period.
Commodities like black pepper and lac etc. were exported from Dabhol. Silk, opium, and indigo were exported from Chaul. Black pepper, cardamom, cotton cloth were the items of trade in Rajapur.

Glossary:

→ Irreparable loss – Too bad or too serious to repair.

→ Strife – Angry or bitter disagreement over fundamental issues.

→ Valiant – Very brave, full of courage.

→ Mansabdar – A military officer who maintains his own division of soldiers.

→ Stucco – A type of plaster used for covering walls and decorating ceilings.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period

Mughal rule in India:
In the beginning of the 16th century, the political condition in India was somewhat disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi Sultanate broke down completely and many new independent kingdoms emerged in the North, Central and South India. The Bahamani kingdom got divided into five branches. The prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed by the five Islamic ruling houses in the South.

The Indians were not familiar with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of all this, the Mughals established their rule in India. The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could not survive in front of Babur in the battle of Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. Babur established his rule in Delhi.

The Rajput kings came together under the leadership of Mewar King Rana Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the throne. After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended the throne. He proved to be the greatest Mughal Emperor because of his qualities such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness and courage.

Reforms in revenue system:
Akbar made further reforms in the revenue system implemented by Shershah Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the Mughal revenue system. He graded the cultivable land-based on systematic land survey. The land was classified into four types on the basis of annual yield, i.e, fertile (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat) and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land holdings of farmers were registered.

Art, architecture, literature:
Art: The reign of the three emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of peace, order and prosperity. A new era began in the field of art and architecture. The etched designs on the marble walls of mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence of the highly advanced styles of art and architecture. The carved designs on the tombs of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj Mahal are its paramount examples.

During the period of Jahangir, paintings were done based on the court and hunting scenes. The paintings of this period were done in a more realistic style, which is vibrant and attractive.

Architecture: The architectural style during Sultanate period had great implements on strength and simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period of Babur, the Kabulbag Mosque at Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar Pradesh were built in Persian style.

The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings like Jama * Masjid, Buland Darwaza were built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the important forts like Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort, and Attock Fort. The use of Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches were the salient features of the architecture of this period.

The period of Shahjahan was the most glorious period of Mughal architecture. ‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red Fort, ‘Jama Masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra built by him is incomparable and immortal. Later, the Mughal architecture began to decline.

Literature: During the Mughal period excellent literature was created in Persian language. Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish languages. His autobiography known as ‘Baburnama’ is well-known. Another important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza Hyder wrote during the period of Humayun. Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’, ‘Lilavati’, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’, ‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’.

Abul Fazal wrote the famous Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-Akbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan, was a Sanskrit scholar. He translated text of several Upanishada texts in Persian language from Sanskrit. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikhi-Khafikhan’ is well-known.

Trade, industries, social life:
During the Mughal period, the transportation of goods within the empire had become speedy. New highways were built for internal trade. Highways were built from Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat, Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via sea route was mainly carried out from the ports on western coast such as Khambayat, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut.

The Indian merchants traded with merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia and some countries of European continent. Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar, ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many such items were exported to foreign countries from India. The goods imported to India included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc.

During the Mughal period, most of the population stayed in villages. Every village was self-sufficient. The law and order was managed and the daily needs were met at the village level. During this period, there were no major changes in the social organisation which was based on caste system.

Mughal Empire and Deccan:
During the rule of Babur and Humayun boundaries of the Mughal empire had no extended beyond North India. The main ruling powers to the South of river Narmada were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and Qutubshahi of Golconda.

In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah, successfully resisted the attack with courage and intelligent strategies.
During the period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom declined. Later, Aurangzeb was successful in uprooting them completely.

Glossary:

→ Descendant – Someone related to a person who live at an earlier time.

→ Aesthetics – Concerned with beauty or art.

→ Strategies – Set of plans to achieve something.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India

→ A social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action.

→  Individual problem is a problem experienced by an individual and it is the individual who must make an effort to solve one’s problem.

→ A social problem is different than an individual problem.

→ Unemployment is a growing problem in Indian society. According to NSSO, an unemployed person is one who puts in less than 14 hours of paid work in a week.

→ The past decade has witnessed an increasing number of farmers’ suicides. Farmers’ suicides are a serious social problem in India.

→ Domestic violence refers to abuse within the family. Domestic violence cuts across all classes, age categories, sexes and genders.

→ The term ‘addiction’ is usually used to refer to a situation of psychological and/or physical dependence on alcohol, correct to, internet or mobiles.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me

Introduction:

• Life’s success depends on mental and emotional well-being.
• Hence, EQ is also as important as IQ.
• Normal behaviour: Well-adjusted individuals
• Abnormal behaviour: Mal-adjusted individuals

Criteria of well-adjusted individuals:

• Realistic perception of self and world: Knowing own strengths and weaknesses and accepting the world as it is.
• Openness to new experiences: Being comfortable towards changes and unknown people.
• High emotional intelligence: Appropriate understanding and management of emotions.
• Healthy relationships: Being able to honour differences, help others and make them feel special.
• High self-esteem: Feeling important, worthy and valuable about oneself.
• It’s rare for a person to possess all the criteria of a well-adjusted individual.
• Also, well-adjusted individuals can face discomfort in certain situations.

Components of emotional intelligence:
Self:

• Self-awareness: Being aware of one’s emotions, desires, motivations and actions.
• Self-regulation: Controlling emotions and restraining inappropriate actions.
• Self-motivation: Pushing oneself towards a goal without any external reward.

Social:

1. Social skills: Ability to comfortably interact with others.
2. Empathy: Ability to put yourself in other’s shoes and understand their pain.

Important aspects of healthy relationships:

1. Being honest
2. Being fair
3. Being respectful
4. Being non-threatening
5. Being a responsible parent
6. Having shared responsibilities
7. Having economic partnership
8. Having trust and support.

The vicious cycle of low self-esteem:

1. Low self-esteem → Negative thoughts →High anxiety → Poor Performance → Failure → Self-blame → Low self-esteem.
2. High self-esteem builds confidence and leads to healthy social interactions and further boosts self-esteem.

Criteria of abnormal Behaviour:

• Deviance: Behaviour going against the laws or set social and statistical standards.
• Personal distress: Feeling very low or depressed on continuous basis.
• Failure to perform functions normally: Day-to-day functioning getting impaired.
• The behaviour can’t be judged on the basis of only one criterion.

Perspectives on abnormal behaviour:

1. Biological: Abnormal behaviour is due to a chemical imbalance or physiological factors.
2. Socio-cultural: Abnormal behaviour is learned within the social context.
3. Behavioural: Abnormal behaviour is due to ineffective learning and conditioning.
4. Evolutionary: Abnormal behaviour is an exaggerated form of adaptive action.
5. Humanistic: Abnormal behaviour arises from blocked personal growth.
6. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic: Abnormal behaviour is due to unconscious and unresolved conflicts.
7. Cognitive: Abnormal behaviour arises due to false assumptions and faulty thinking.

Two models that explain the causes of abnormal behaviour:
Stress-Diathesis model:

• Disorder = Nature (Biological and genetic factors) + Nurture (Life experiences) of abnormal
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder are more likely behaviour to show abnormal behaviour when exposed to environmental stress.

Biopsychosocial model:

• Abnormal behaviour = Biological factors + Psychological factors + Sociocultural factors
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder develop abnormalities if exposed to a disturbing and hostile environment, If exposed to nurturing and protective environment, there are fewer chances.

Challenges faced by adolescents:

• Lack of self-confidence: Not feeling positive about oneself.
• Sexual orientation: Recognising and understanding their sexual preferences.
• Gender Identity: Recognising and identifying if their gender corresponds with their birth sex.
• Bullying: Outside of their protective homes, chances of being bullied.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development

Introduction:

1. The term ‘Human Development’ means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience.
2. Hereditary factors, as well as physical and social environment, determine development.
3. Development occurs at an appropriate time in physical, cognitive, emotional as well as social aspects.

Characteristics of development:

• Development follows a specific pattern.
• Development takes place in specific direction.
• Development is continuous.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.
• There are individual differences in development.
• The rate of development is different for different body parts.
• Development leads to integration.
• Certain behavioural problems are normal for a particular stage.
• Development is predictable.
• The child develops as a unified whole.

Growth maturation and development:

• Growth refers to physical changes as the age advances.
• Maturation refers to a natural unfolding of the genetic potential at the appropriate time,
• Development is qualitative change and it includes physical as well as mental changes.
• The concepts of growth, maturation and development are parallel, i.e. an individual grows, matures and develops simultaneously.

Developmental Stages:

1. Human life proceeds in stages.
2. Broadly, human development can be classified into prenatal and postnatal stages.
3. A period between conception till birth is called prenatal period while period after birth till death is called postnatal period.
4. The stages in prenatal period are germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage while post-natal period consists of neonatal stage, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, late adulthood and old age.
5. Each stage is associated with a different set of characteristics and problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self

Introduction:

• All of us are part of thiš world. We play many roles in our lives.
• Self-concept is defined as the totality of perceptions each person has of themselves.
• According to Symonds, self-concept is the way an individual reacts to himself.
• Our self-concept continues to change throughout our life span.

Dimensions of self-concept:

• Rentsch and Heffener are conducted research on the dimensions of self-concept.
• Their research showed that the overall organization of self-concept is common for all.
• They found eight categories by which participants defined themselves.

Self and life cycle:

• On average, till the age of six months, the child Is unaware of himself.
• As the child grows, he realizes that he is different from the rést of the world.
• Generally, face recognition with a mirror occurs at the average age of one and half years.
• By the age of two, the child becomes aware of general expectations.
• By the age of three, children start recognizing themselves and others as boys or girls.
• When schooling starts, a child begins to compare himself with others.
• The final unfolding of self-concept during adolescence involves perspective-taking.

Gender Identity and gender role:

1. Gender role and gender identity are important aspects of self-concept.
2. Gender identity is the perception of oneself as male or female.
3. Gender role is psycho-social in nature and is determined through social interactions.
4. Gender identity is a biological aspect while gender role is an acquired attribute of self-concept.

Aspects of self:

• Four major aspects of self are self-awareness, self-image, self-efficacy and self-esteem.
• Self-awareness is the quality or trait that involves conscious awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviours and traits.
• Self-image is a personal view or mental picture that we have of ourselves. Body image is also a part of self-image.
• Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his ability to accomplish some specific goal or a task.
• Self-esteem is our overall evaluation of our worth as a person based on all positive and negative self-perceptions.

Self-regulatIon:

1. Self-regulation is being able to control our own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
2. When one engages in self-regulation, he avoids impulsive reactions.
3. Self-regulation also involves focusing on certain parts of life.
4. Higgins showed that people either have promotion or prevention regulatory focus.
5. Self-regulation has crucial implications in our life.

Carl Rogers’ theory of self:

• According to Carl Rogers, every individual has a tendency to actualize himself.
• People who achieve self-actualization are well-balanced, well-adjusted, and interesting.
• Two important concepts related to Roger’s theory are the real self and ideal self.
• The real self is what we actually are while ¡deal self is what we want to be.
• High congruence between the real self and ideal self leads to a healthy productive life.