Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation

Introduction Meaning of Globalisation:
Globalisation refers to the rapid spread of goods and services, technology and information, ideas and culture, trade and interactions across the world. It is the connection of different parts of the world, resulting in the expansion of international cultural, informational, economic and political activities.

In the early 1990s, the term globalisation was used to include economic, political, sociocultural, technological and ideological changes that occurred in the world in the post-Cold War era. The world has become more interconnected due to advances in technology and communication. Events in one part of the world have an impact on other parts of the world. Changes have taken place economically and culturally.

Economic Issues:
Some economic changes that have occurred due to globalisation are –

Free flow of finance and capital – Investments provide finance and help to build industries. Indian companies, both private for e.g., Tatas and government e.g., ONGC have invested in many countries in Asia, Africa and Europe. Foreign companies have also invested in India in sectors like power plants, infrastructure projects, consumer food chains, etc. This free flow of capital is both ways i.e., India to foreign countries and vice-versa. Foreign investment especially in the infrastructure sector is essential.

Change in the concept of trade

→ WTO – It was established in 1995 to replace GATT. WTO is the only agency that oversees the rules of international trade, settles trade disputes and organises trade negotiations and agreements.

→ The scope of the term ‘trade’ has widened to include not only traditional commodities like fruits, grains, minerals, oil, etc. but also services like banking, insurance and intellectual property like trademarks.

→ Use of container cargo ships to carry huge amount of goods all over the world.

→ Rise of Transnational companies for e.g., Nestle, Unilever are transnational companies that operate in India. Even Indian multinational companies like Wipro, Bajaj, etc., are doing well.

This affects the economy as follows –

→ Labour market – MNC’s recruit skilled and semi-skilled employees for e.g., Indian labour is employed in West Asia, Europe, USA, etc., in industrial and service sectors.

→ Small shops and industries – Those stores which are efficient, continue to thrive while some industries either sell out to MNC’s or shut down.

→ Agricultural sector- Many MNC’s have introduced new technology and opened up direct markets for Indian agricultural products for e.g., India exports spices, fish, etc., to many nations.

Idealogical Issues:
During the Cold War, East European nations, Soviet Union and China followed socialist ideology where the public sector was important. USA and West European countries were capitalist and so the private sector was important. India followed Democratic Socialism and a ‘Mixed Economy’ where both public and private sector co-existed in the economic system.

Today, there is only one dominant ideological and economic system i.e., market economy. However, the nature of the market economy is determined by the ideology of that country for e.g., USA has ‘capitalist market economy, many West European countries have ‘welfare market economy’, China has ‘socialist market economy. The Indian system is based on ‘economic liberalism’

Technological Issues:
Rapid advances in global communication such as internet, satellite communication etc., brought in revolutionary changes in our lives. The internet has provided search engines like ‘Google’ to find out information and has enabled social networking through micro media like Instagram, Skype, etc.

All these technologies are transnational and may be positively inclined e.g., NGO’s working for humanitarian issues or negatively inclined such as terrorist organisations.

Social and Cultural Issues:
Today, a ‘global cosmopolitan culture’ has emerged i.e., movement of people across the world and public awareness of global issues. This is noticed in matters like values e.g., secularism, clothing, food choices, ways of celebrating festivals, etc. There is international awareness of India’s rich cultural and historical heritage.

Similarly, westernisation and urbanisation have influenced Indian society e.g., breakup of the traditional joint family and rise of individualism and materialism in the country.

Political Issues:

Importance of Democracy – Disintegration of Soviet Union and the revolutions in East European countries signified the end of communism and a move towards democratic systems. Today, concepts like Participatory State, Good Governance, etc., have become important.

A participatory State indicates that all sections of society participate in policymaking and in the democratic process. Good governance focuses on the role of civil society in the functioning of an accountable, responsible and responsive government.

Position of the State – Under globalisation, sovereignty of the State, which is closely linked to its jurisdiction appears to be challenged internally and externally. Internal challenges include activism of non-state actors, rise of divisive factors, decline of national consensus, etc while external challenges include rise Of regional economic organisations, growing humanitarian concerns, etc.

Non-State actors – Today, not only States but also non-state actors like NGO’s, pressure groups, etc. Play a significant role in international affairs and in promoting humanitarian issues.

Human Rights – Protection and promotion of human rights is an important issue in the age of globalisation. Countries interpret human rights in accordance with their history, culture, economy and polity, Many nations, including India lay stress on social justice before full enjoyment of civil and political rights.

It is often argued that the role and importance of the State is slowly reducing, However, the State is still the pivot in domestic and international spheres.

Evaluation Of Globalisation:

Positive aspects

• Better communication and interconnection.
• New employment opportunities.
• Better choice of goods and services to the consumer.
• Wider investments and scope of expansion of industries.

Negative aspects

• A fear that the State’s welfare activities in fields like education, health, etc. will be diminished.
• Fear that international competition will cripple small, local businesses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 3 Chalcolithic Villages in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 3 Chalcolithic Villages in India

Chalcolithic Period in India:
The people of Late Harappan cultures who had settled on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever these people reached, new rural cultures came into being.

The discipline of architecture, town planning of the Mature Harappan period was absent in the Late Harappan settlements, established on the ruins of the Harappan cities. The designs found on the burial pots in ‘Cemetery H’ at Harappa were different. In brief, the characteristics of the Late Harappan culture were different.

Rajasthan
‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture: The chalcolithic cultures in India generally belong to the post-Harappan period. However, the ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated to 4000 B.C.E and was first discovered at Ahar near Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture.

Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture: Many sites of the culture known as ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been found in the vicinity of the copper mines at Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than the Harappan civilisation. During the excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found. The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpur culture supplied copper objects to the Harappans.

The Ganga Valley
Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper Hoards: Initially, the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) was mostly found in river beds. Now, a number of sites of the OCP culture are found in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar Pradesh. House floors of these people were made by ramming. On the house floors were found traces of hearths, terracotta male figurines and bull figurines. Remains of cattle bones, rice and barley were also found.

Bihar, Bengal, Odisha: Copper hoards have been found in Bihar, Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. However, OCP is not found in these regions. Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in these regions. In Bengal and Odisha also, some chalcolithic sites have yielded pottery that shows Harappan influence as far their shapes are concerned. They include bowls and troughs of various sizes.

Madhya Pradesh
Kayatha Culture: Kayatha is a site situated on the bank of the river known as Chhoti Kali Sindh, at a distance of 25 kilometres from Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. Kayatha culture was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. The people of Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and animal husbandry.

Malwa Culture: The name ‘Malwa’ obviously tells us that this culture originated and spread first in the Malwa region. It existed in Madhya Pradesh during 1800- 1200 B.C.E. ‘Navadatoli’ situated on the river Narmada, on the opposite bank of Maheshwar, is an important site of Malwa culture. The other important sites are Eran (District Sagar) and Nagda (District Ujjain). They were surrounded by protective walls.

Gujarat: The chalcolithic settlements in Gujarat coincide with the following phases of the Harappan culture:
Early Harappan phase (3950-2600 B.C.E.) (2) Mature (urban) phase (2600-1900 B.C.E.) (3) Post- Harappan phase (1900-900 B.C.E.) There are ample sources of semi-precious stones in Gujarat. Making beads of these stones was a big industry during Harappan times.

The Neolithic settlements in Gujarat played a major role in procuring these stones. People residing in the neolithic settlements of Gujarat were mainly pastoral, that is people whose primary occupation was animal husbandry. Probably, some of these pastoral people were semi-nomadic.

There are regional variations in the characteristics of chalcolithic cultures of Gujarat. The chalcolithic pottery of Kutch Saurashtra and Northern Gujarat are distinct from each other. The chalcolithic villages in Kutch-Saurashtra were abandoned by 1900 B.C.E.

In the post-Harappan period, there were two chalcolithic cultures in Gujarat. The culture in south Gujarat was known as ‘Prabhas’ culture and the one in northeastern Gujarat was known as ‘Rangpur’ culture. The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures was akin to Late Harappan pottery with regards to the colour, shapes and designs. These cultures existed till 1800-1200 B.C.E.

Chalcolithic Maharashtra:
The chalcolithic culture before the arrival of the Late Harappans at Daimabad is known as ‘Savalda’ culture.

Savalda Culture: Savalda is in Dhule district. It is situated on the banks of the river Tapi Savalda culture is dated to 2000-1800 B.C.E. This culture seems to have arisen by the cultural contact between the Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra and the Harappan people in Saurashtra. People of Savalda culture at Daimabad used wheel-made pottery. The designs on their earthen pots included arrowheads, harpoons and figures of various animals.

Malwa and Jorwe Cultures: The First Farmers of Maharashtra. The people of Malwa culture reached Maharashtra around 1600 B.C.E. Permanent villages of farmers were first established in Maharashtra by the Malwa people. They were the first farmers of Maharashtra. After arriving in Maharashtra, they came into contact with the neolithic people in Karnataka. It resulted into a few changes in the pot making technology of Malwa people as far as shapes of the pots and designs are concerned.

Megalithic Period in India: At about 700 B.C.E. Inamgaon was completely abandoned by the Jorwe people. Thereafter it was never occupied till the historic period. This situation prevailed in most of the Maharashtra. However, a nomadic people of this period erected stone circles by using huge slabs of rock. The – space within these circles was used to bury dead people. Because of the huge stone slabs used in their erection, these circles are known as megaliths. The period of these megaliths is known as the ‘Megalithic Age’.

Glossary:

→ Chalcolithic Relating to or denoting a period when tools and weapons were made of copper.

→ Harpoons – A long thin weapon with a sharp pointed end and a rope tied to it that is used to catch large sea animals.

→ Contemporary – Belonging to the same time as somebody/something else.

→ Farmstead A farm and its buildings.

→ Pegging – Controlling.

→ Fanning – To cause a current of air to blow upon.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World

Introduction
India has played an active role in international relations even before independence for e.g. India was a signatory at the San Francisco Conference that gave shape to the United Nations Charter.

The primary objectives of India’s Foreign Policy are –

• maintenance of international peace and security.
• protection of the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• maintaining good relations with neighbouring countries and with regional groups such as ASEAN.
• greater integration with the world economy to sustain a high growth rate.

The principles of India’s foreign policy are –

→ respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all States.

→ non-intervention in the internal affairs of any other States.

→ respect for international law.

→ belief in peaceful coexistence and peaceful resolution of international disputes.

→ active participation in international and regional organisations.

→ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is called the ‘architect of India’s foreign policy.

Factors Influencing India’s Foreign Policy:

Geography – The extensive coastline of the Indian peninsula and the Himalayan mountain ranges have shaped India’s security and foreign policy. India shares a border with all neighbouring countries of South Asia. It also holds a dominant position in the Indian Ocean.

History – It includes the influence of traditional cultural values, cultural ties as well as values like anti-colonialism which were imbibed during the freedom struggle.

Economy – The strong urge to come out of poverty and economic backwardness created by the colonial period as well as the policy of Non-Alignment shaped India’s foreign policy. India followed democratic socialism through the policy of import substitution and importance to the public sector. Post-1991, after adopting the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation many changes have occurred in India’s foreign policy.

Polity – Political leadership has a significant impact on India’s foreign policy for e.g., Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lai Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi have played a decisive role in determining India’s foreign policy. Ministry of External Affairs and National Security Advisor play an important role in formulating foreign policy.

International situation – During the Cold War, superpower politics had impacted India’s foreign policy e.g., adopting Non-Alignment. Similarly, conditions such as end of the Cold War, Indo-US dialogues, China-Pakistan relations, growth of regional organisations, etc., have impacted the foreign policy of India.

India’s Relations With The World:
→  Relations with major powers in the world During the Cold War, USA and Soviet Union were the superpowers. In the 21st century, Russia and China have emerged as major powers. ‘

United States of America (USA):
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had supported the cause of India’s independence, However, relations between USA and India remained strained for most of the Cold War period. Close relations of the USA with Pakistan and its position on the Kashmir issue have been irritants in Indo-US relations. Following India’s second nuclear tests (1998) the US imposed sanctions on India.

→ However, from the start of this century Indo- US ties have improved due to the following reasons –

Anti-terrorism stance: India supported President George W. Bush’s war on terrorism. Similarly, after the 2001 terrorist attack on Indian Parliament by Pakistan-supported terrorist groups, US demanded that Pakistan should stop sponsoring cross-border terrorism.

Partnership and Agreements: The US regards India as a major partner in the Indo- Pacific region. India regards the USA as a major source of investment and partner in trade and defence as well as in multilateral fora like India-US-Japan. In 2008, the India- US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was signed by which India became the only country outside NPT that has nuclear capabilities.

Soviet Union / Russia:
During the Cold War era, Soviet Union provided aid to India in the form of technology, weapons and low-interest credit to India’s heavy industry projects in the public sector. Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1971) is considered a milestone in their bilateral relations.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia agreed to provide reactors for India’s Kudankulam nuclear power plant and for joint ventures to produce Sukhoi fighter aircraft and Brahmos missiles. Both India and Russia have major stakes in Russia oil fields such as Sakhalin-1 highlighting the importance of energy security.

China: In 1949, the Communist revolution took place in China. India was among the first nations to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement and India also recognised Chinese suzerainty on Tibet.

The main hindrances in Sino-Indian relations are –

• 1962 Indo-China war, 2017 Doklam skirmish
• Border disputes in Aksai Chin and NEFA region
• China has been critical of India offering political asylum to the Dalai Lama
• Chinese support to Pakistan
• India’s apprehensions against China’s Belt and Road Initiative.

On the positive side, India-China relationship has improved due to –

→ Agreement on maintenance of peace and tranquillity along the LOC

→ China has become among the largest trading partners of India

→ India and China are part of BRICS and SCO

→ In the late 1990s, Russia mooted the idea of a Trilateral Summit of Russia, China, India which was a recognition of India’s status as a major regional power.

Relations with Africa:
In the first few decades after independence, India supported the fight against apartheid and provided financial and material aid to liberation struggles in Africa for eg., the AFRICA Fund created at the NAM Summit (Harare)
There are several issues in the context of India-African relations

→ The India-Africa summit was held in 2015.

→ About 24 per cent of Indian crude oil imports are sourced from the African continent eg., ONGC Videsh has invested in Sudan and Egypt.

→ About two million people in Eastern and Southern Africa constitute the India diaspora which is considered as an asset by the Indian government.

→ Indian industries are interested in offering technological and material services to developing African nations.

→ India continues to be one of the military training destinations e.g., National Defence Academy, Pune has the ‘Sudan Block’ as a symbol of cooperation between India and Sudan.

→ Countries from Somalia to South Africa fall under the India maritime strategic perspective. Hence, cases of terrorism and piracy in Somalian waters have made this region sensitive to Indian concerns.

Relations with the Neighbourhood:
All South Asian countries share a border with India. Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka are regarded as India’s neighbours. Countries in the India Ocean Region (IOR), from East Africa, Persian Gulf to Malaysia, Vietnam as well as countries in the Central Asian hinterland of IOR form India’s extended neighbourhood.

India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the idea of Asian-African regionalism. This led to initiatives like Asian Relations Conference (1947) and Bandung conference (1955)

Relations with Pakistan: The main cause of the tensions between India and Pakistan has been the status of Kashmir. This led to the 1947-48 conflict and 1965 war. Efforts to improve Indo-Pak relations include 1972 Shimla Agreement, 1999 Lahore Agreement, etc.

Himalayan Kingdoms: Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim were British protectorates. Sikkim opted to integrate with India (1975). Relations with Bhutan have been cordial. However, relations with Nepal have seen ups and downs.

Bangladesh: India played a major role in securing independence for Bangladesh in 1971. Major issues in Indo – Bangladesh relations were about distribution of waters of Teesta river, land and maritime boundaries, Chakma refugees, etc. Cross border terrorism is a concern for both countries.

Sri Lanka: India and Sri Lanka had a disputed maritime boundary. The main issue here is Sri Lanka had accused India of supporting the LTTE.

Myanmar: It was a co-convener at the Bandung Conference. However, after the military coup in 1962 there was a cooling off in Indo-Burma relations. India extended support to the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar under its leader Mrs. Aung San Suu Kyi. The support of Myanmar is vital in India’s action against militant groups hiding in Myanmar

West Asia: India has been a supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and yet ensured that it maintains good relations with Israel. Similarly, India has shared cordial historical and cultural ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia.

South-East Asia: Indonesia under Sukarno had co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with Vietnam have always been good. India had openly criticised US intervention in Viet Minh. As part of its “Look East” and “Act East” policy, India has improved relations with countries like Japan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., The areas of cooperation include security of trade routes, anti-piracy operations, etc.,

India has a Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN and is also a partner in ASEAN promoted ARF. India has been an active partner in SCO, BIMSTEC, etc.,

India Ocean Region: The coastline presents both challenge and opportunity to India due to its trade and security perspectives. The Naval Plans Paper (1948) expressed India’s maritime vision. In the 1971 war with Pakistan, the Indian Navy played a significant role. Bharatmala and Sagarmala projects are significant. The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation was created in 1997 to promote sustained and balanced growth of the region. It has 22 Member States and 9 Dialogue Partners.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India

Characteristics of Harrapan Civilisation:
A few years ago, it was strongly believed that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information was available regarding the period before that. This situation continued till the discovery of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in 1922.

The discovery of the Harappan Civilisation at these two places stretched the antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 B.C.E. Harappan civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far, more than 2000 sites of the Harappan civilisation have been recorded. The history of these cities had three stages viz:

• Early Harappan period
• Mature Harappan (Urban) period
• Late Harappan period
• Some of the main characteristics of the Harappan cities are
• Systematic Town Planning
• Central Administration
• Social Organisation
• Economy
• Use of Developed Writing System
• Some cities of Harrapan Civilisation:

Harappa: Harappa is situated on the banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in Punjab, Pakistan). The v ancient site of Harappa had spread on 150 Hectares. The first excavation at Harappa began in 1921. The first settlement of the Early Harappan period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban) phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E.

Mohenjodaro: Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District Larkana, Sindh). Area wise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest city, among those discovered in Pakistan so far. It was thought that the city was divided into two fortified sections, namely the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’.

The excavations at Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began in 1921-22. In 1923- 24 to gather more information about Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others conducted further excavations under Sir John Marshall’s direction. He was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India at that time. During these excavations, various artefacts, houses and public monuments were unearthed.

Kalibangan: The site of Kalibangan is 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is located in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P. Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited Kalibangan during his study tour of the region.

It was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi Lai, the then Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna Thapar. At Kalibangan two settlements, one of the Mature Harappan period and the other of the Early Harappan period, were found. Kalibangan was a small city compared to Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

Lothal: Lothal was established on the banks of the river Bhogao. The centre of the Harappan civilisation at Lothal was situated near the Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the supervision of S.R. Rao. The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at Lothal do not have separate fortification walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single fortification wall.

Dholavira: Dholavira was discovered by J.P. Joshi, the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India. The site is in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch). Excavations at the site were started by R.S. Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan sites, extent wise Dholavira is the fifth-largest city. An Early Harappan settlement was discovered at Dholavira. There was a protective wall built around it by using mud bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones. It was surrounded by an outer fortification wall.

The settlement within the outer fortification was divided into four sections.

1. Citadel
2. The adjacent section reserved for high officials
3. Lower Town – These three sections had walls, which separated them from each other.
4. The fourth section inside the outer fortification did not have any additional separating walls.

Rakhigarhi: In the Hissar district of Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150 kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river). Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site, among all the sites from India and Pakistan.

Its total area was more than 350 Hectares. The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in 1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, Dr Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Pune also conducted excavations at the site.

Inter-relationship between Cities and Villages:
The city people are dependent on the natural resources and villages in their vicinity in order, to meet the needs of urban way of life and urban administration. The raw material needed for Harappan industrial production included clay, various siliceous and semi-precious stones, metals, etc.

The inter-relationship between Harappan cities and villages was dependent on the mechanism of making available, things like food grains and the raw materials.

Production, Trade, Organisation and Administration:
During the Mature (urban) Harappan period the sphere of commodity exchange expanded and their import-export increased to a great extent. The internal and distant trade received momentum. Trade with distant places like Mesopotamia became regular. Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during Early Harappan times.

The Akkadian empire was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the Harappan cities reached their peak. Harappan period and the sea trade had become the preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important centres on the sea route. Harappan traders are likely to have received wool, gold and silver in exchange other commodities.

Decline of the Cities:
When Harappan civilisation was discovered, it was presumed that its cities were destroyed by invading tribes who came from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting the definition of ‘pura’. Deteriorating environment was the main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia. Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating environment were the main reasons of the decline of the Harappan civilisation too. Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became increasingly arid and there were frequent famines. Degradation of cultivable land was on the increase.

Glossary:

→ Fortification – Walls, towers etc. built especially in the past to protect a plact’ against attack.

→ Artefacts – An object that is made by a person.

→ Citadel – A castle on high ground or near a city where people could go when the rity is attacked.

→ Granary – A large building for storing grains.

→ Linguist Someone who studies the structure and development of language.

→ Furrow – A trench in the earth made by a plough.

→ Dock – An area of a port where ships stop to be loaded, repaired etc.

→ Dwindled – To become smaller or weaker.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 4 The Economy of Maharashtra students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 4 The Economy of Maharashtra

→ Maharashtra State has been divided into 36 districts.

→ 6 Revenue Divisions of Maharashtra

1. Mumbai
2. Pune
3. Nasik
4. Aurangabad
5. Amravati
6. Nagpur

→ Features Of Maharashtra Economy

• Abundant natural resource, skilled manpower, technologically advanced infrastructure, etc.
• Highest GSDP & SPCI as compared to other states.
• Literacy rate 82.3% – 2011 Census
• Most favoured destination for creativity, skill, development, tourism and investment.
• Sex Ratio L929 females per 1000 males
• 2nd 1arges populated F4ate country (11.24 crores- Census 2011)
• 3rd largest state in country in terms of geographical area. (3.08 lacs sq. km)
• Most urbanised state

→ Problems In Economic Development Of Mahakashtra

1. Agricultural Sector
2. Industrial Sector

1. Agricultural Sector:

• Decrease in average size of land holdings
• Increase in number of small and marginal farmers
• Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides (soil degradation)
• Agricultural indebtedness
• Poor implementation of land reforms
• Inadequate irrigation facilities
• Lack of capital and marketing facilities
• Improper implementation of rural development plans
• Impact of climatic change

2. Industrial Sector:

• Delays in Government procedure
• Lack of opportunities for skill development
• Lack of updated technology
• Lack of infrastructure facilities
• Lack of motivation to new enterpreneurs
• Lack of development programmes
• Regional imbalance

→ Measures Undertaken By The Govt. For – Agricultural Development:

• Distribution of quality seeds at reasonable rates.
• Number of outlets increased for fertilizer and pesticide distribution. Development of irrigation facilities.
• Electrification of agricultural pumps and to provide electricity on demand.
• Provide financial assistance.
• Setting up of APMC, Establishment of agro export zones, horticultural training centres, grading and packing facilities.
• Create awareness by use of mass media for making agriculture a profit making business.

→ Industry : Maharashtra is an industrially advanced state.
The share of industry in Net Value Added (NVA) is about 18%. Maharashtra is the first choice of domestic and foreign investor.
Maharashtra is ranked as number one investment destination in India.
Maharashtra is in forefront in terms of FDI inflow in India.

→ Problems In Industrial Sector:

• Lack of opportunities for skill development
• Delays in Government procedure
• Lack of updated technology
• Regional imbalance
• Lack of infrastrucLural facilities
• Lack of development programmes
• Lack of motivation to new enterprises

→ Measures Undertaken By ‘The Government For Industrial Development:

• Introduction of MAITRI (Maharashtra Industry, Trade and Investment Facilitation Cell)
• Awards for export performance space rent subsidies to small scale industries
• Introduction of MAITRI (Maharashtra Industry, Trade and Investment Facilitation Cell)
• Initiation of Single window cell
• Creation of (SEZ) Special: Economic Zones
• Implementation of Maharashtra State Industrial Cluster Development Programme (MSICDP)

→ Service Sector :

• It consists of – insurance, tourism, retail banking, education and social services.
• It provides services to business sector as well as final consumers.
• It is largest employment generating and fastest growing sector.
• Core area of service sector includes – Fintech, IT/ITES, start ups, cloud computing, electric vehicles, defence, tourism and private universities.

→ Core Area Of Service Sector:

• Infrastructure
• Tourism
• Hospitality
• Entertainment Industry

Infrastructure:

1. Economic Infrastructure
2. Social Infrastructure

Economic Infrastructure:

• Energy
• Transport
• Communication

Social Infrastructure:

• Health
• Education

→ Measures for development of Economic Infrastructure:

• Increase in installed capacity of electricity generation.
• Rural electrification, network improvement and energy conservation programmes.
• Direct benefit transfer scheme to LPG consumers.
• Implementation of Road development pIan. (2001 .2021).
  (Target – 3.37 lakh kms of road)
• Metro Railway – at Mumbai and Nagpur.
• Constitution of Maharashtra Port Development Policy,
  (Sagarmala Programme- by Central Government)

→ 4 Levels of Education:

1. Primary Education (STD. I To VIII)
2. Secondary and Higher Secondary Education (STD. IX to XII)
3. Higher Education
4. Others:

1. Primary Education (STD. I To VIII)

• Scheme: Right to Education (RTE) (6-14 yrs)
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA)
• Expenditure: ‘19,486 Crores (2016-17)

2. Secondary and Higher Secondary Education (STD. IX to XII)

• Schemes: Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
• Expenditure : Rs. 16,089 Crores (2016-17)

3. Higher Education:

• 22 State Universities
• Maharashtra Public Universities Act, 2016
• Scheme : Rashtriya LJchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)

4. Others:

1. Inclusive Education
2. Girls Education
3. Adult Literacy
4. Tribal Education

Inclusive Education:
For Differently abled children

Girls Education:

• Free education till higher secondary level
• Free of cost S.T. bus service
• Bicycles to near living within 5 kms from schools.

Adult Literacy:

• ‘Each one Teach one’
• ‘Sakshar Bharat Abhiyan

Tribal Education:

• Residential Ashram Schools
• Hostel facility
• Free uniform, food, educational materials, etc.

→ Health Services:

• 1814 Primary health centres
• 360 Community health centres
• Health programme by Government of Maharashtra
• National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)
• National Urban Health Mission (NUHM) include programme like
  • Sanitation and Hygiene (common points in both NRHM and NUHM)
  • Nutrition (common points in both NRHM and NUHM)
  • Safe drinking water

3 Tier”Health Infrastructure:

1. Primary Tier
2. Secondary Tier
3. Tertiary Tier

Primary Tier

• Primary Health Centres
• Community Health Centres

Secondary Tier

• Sub-district hospitals
• District hospitals

Tertiary Tier

• Well Equipped Medical Colleges
• Super specialty hospitals

→ Tourism (Maharashtra Tourism Policy, 2016)

Objectives:

• to make Maharashtra a leading tourist destination by 2025.
• to attract investments of ? 30,000 Crore.
• to create additional jobs

Nodal Agency: → Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation (MTDC)
“Mahabhraman” → (agro tourism, village tourism, food tourism, safaris, etc.)

→ Hospitality:

• Hotel Industry
• Transportation
• Event Management
• General Tourism
• Restaurants

Transportation

• Airlines
• Mumbai – Goa Cruiseship
• Fancier Trains (Deccan Odyssey)

→ Entertainment Industry:

• Largest number of films in world Generates
• Generates employment opportunities
• Koihapur – well known for regional films
• Mumbai – Popularly called as ‘Bollywood’.

→ Co-operative Movement in Maharashtra:
Objectives:

• To develop rural areas.
• To improve socio-economic conditions of under-privileged
• To develop agro-processing and agro marketing.
• To support sugar co-operatives, fisheries co-operative and dairy co-operatives.

Word Meaning:

revenue divisions – administrative division to collect government revenue and lower its expenses, geographical area – physical features of an area, urbanized – people staying in city or town, census – a survey of counting of population, literacy rate – percentage of population who can read and write, characterised – features, abundant- plenty, resources – stock of something, infrastructure – basic structure like buildings, roads, bridges, etc. destination – place to visit, allied – joined, declining – decreasing, trend – direction, average – mean, marginal – very small, excessive – more, degradation – low in quality, indebtness – to owe something, implement – to do it / to carry out, adverse – poor, inadequate – not sufficient, reasonable – low cost, electrification – use of electricity, assistance – to help, agro – agriculture based, awareness – to make understand/ to bring to notice, mass media – communication to people through TV, Radio, Newspaper, etc, potential – capable possibility, diversification – to change the line of business, amend – to make changes, liberalisation – removal of restrictions, opportunities – chances, motivation – willingness to do something, clearances – to clear/ to give pass away, consolidate – to combine, subsidies – grant/allowaness, retail banking – banking services provided to general /public, core – important/essential/significant, expand – to enlarge, rapid – fast, sustainable – to maintain, achievement – to do something successfully, energy conservation – preventing the waste of energy, integrated – linked together, subscriber – member, components – a part of something, stimulate – to encourage, backbone – to support, scenario – situation, priority – more important, compulsory – essential, universalization – through out, veterinary- study related to animal diseases and it treatments, autonomous – independent, privatization – transfer of public company to private ownership, globalization – all over the world, concession – discount, emphasizes – to give special attention, strengthen- to build up, sanitation – to provide clean drinking water and sewage disposal, hygiene – cleanliness, nutrition – obtaining necessary food for health, three tier – three level, comprehensive – inclusive, tertiary – service sector, abroad – foreign, agro tourism – agriculture based tourism, manifold – numbers /multiple, cruiseship – passenger ship used for travelling with amenities within it, impact – effect, underprivileged – needy, solidarity – mutual support, subsequently – afterward.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 1 First Farmers students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 1 First Farmers

River Valley Civilisations:
Homo habilis made the first stone tools. These tools were useful only for simple jobs like scraping meat from the hides of dead animals, breaking nuts, etc. The later species of mankind after Homo habilis were more advanced. It resulted into the rise of the ‘Neolithic Age’. After that, settled villages came into being. The archaeological evidence shows that systematic agriculture began some 12000-11000 years ago.

The progress in the techniques of systematic cultivation resulted in the rise of the most ancient river valley civilisations of the Neolithic age. The river valley civilisations grew in four regions of the world. Those regions were Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indian Subcontinent and China.

The Valley of Euphrates and Tigris – Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia is the Greek name of the region between the two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates. Mesos means the ‘middle one’. Potamos means ‘river’. The region between two rivers is ‘Mesopotamia’. The Mesolithic people began to stay in this region for longer times because of the availability of ample water.

Ancient Mesopotamia included modern Iraq, Syria as well as the western regions of Iran and south-eastern regions of Turkey. The camps of Mesolithic people developed into the first settled neolithic villages. These first villages are dated to 10000 years B.C.E.

The Valley of Nile – Egypt: Napoleon Bonaparte had taken along many scholars from various fields during his invasion of Egypt in 1798. They studied the ancient remains in Egypt and published it. These studies received a momentum because of the decipherment of the Rosetta inscriptions. The first neolithic villages in Egypt came into being at about 6000 B.C.E. The beginning of agriculture in Egypt coincides with the same time.

The Valley of the Huang He – China: The Valley of Huang He River is considered to be the region of origin of the Chinese culture. The Chinese culture evolved here. Agriculture in the neolithic villages of China began at about 7000 B.C.E. Wheat, foxtail millet and rice were grown by the farmers in these villages.

The Valleys of Sindhu (Indus) and Saraswati – Indian Subcontinent: The region of the valleys of Sindhu and Saraswati is now divided between India and Pakistan. The archaeological excavations at Harappa on the banks of Ravi in Punjab and Mohenjo Daro on the banks of Sindhu in Sindh indicate the existence of a fully developed civilisation in the Indian subcontinent which was dated to circa 3000 B.C.E.

It proves that there were well-settled villages in the Indian subcontinent as early as 8000 B.C.E. There is a general consensus among the scholars that the Harappan cities evolved from these early villages.

Beginning of Cultivation: Agricultural Production:
Beginning of cultivation is also the beginning of the neolithic age. It spans through 10000 – 8700 B.C.E. It may vary to some extent from place to place. This period marked the beginning of domestication of animals along with the beginning of cultivation.

Barley was the main crop in this period. Other crops were wheat and flaxseed. Thus, the technology evolved; the techniques of hunting and obtaining food improved; food became available in plenty.
This resulted in making the Mesolithic people stay at one place for a longer time of the year. This is how the villages were settled on a permanent basis.

First Farmers of India:
Neo means ‘new’ and lithic means ‘of stone neolithic’ age got its name because of the stone tools of completely new types. The site is of great importance among the neolithic villages in the Indian subcontinent established by the first farmers. The Mehrgarh farmers cultivated barley and wheat. There is another site of a neolithic village that is contemporary to Mehrgarh.

The site was found at ‘Lahuradeva’ in Sant Kabir Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh. In Maharashtra, the mesolithic man existed during 10000-4000 B.C.E. The Chalcolithic people were the first farmers of Maharashtra. Inamgaon, in the Shirur taluka of Pune district, is an important site of the village of Chalcolithic farmers in Maharashtra.

Agricultural Settlements:
A village with at least a population of 100 could meet the needs of individual members who would be completely dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry. Neolithic villages were small in size. Permanently occupied dwellings (mostly round huts) were characteristic of these villages.

Other than these dwellings, some places in the central part of the village were perhaps used as common storage places of food-grains and other things. This internal settlement pattern of the village indicates that the transactions related to food production were centrally controlled.

Trade and Transport:
The nomadic-semi nomadic groups of Mesolithic people had a system of barter among themselves. The wheel was not yet invented. It means that the means of mechanical transport were not available to them. The neolithic people invented the wheel and the technology they had developed so far, underwent a revolution. The neolithic people began to produce wheel-made pottery.

The wheel technology made it possible to produce pottery on a mass scale. The invention of the wheel also made it possible to obtain the raw material from distant places in much lesser time. It helped to develop trade and transport on a greater scale.

Beginning of Urbanisation:
After settling down at one place for a long time, a feeling of ownership arose among the Neolithic people. This feeling was focused on their individual dwellings and the piece of land cultivated by them. Eventually, the villages expanded. Along with it, awareness of collective landholdings and the village boundaries became prominent.

It gave rise to administrative centers. Such administrative centers attract a large population that includes officials, people from various occupations. As a result, the periphery of the original settlement kept expanding and cities came into being. Thus, began the process of urbanization in the Neolithic age.

Glossary:

→ Civilization – The process by which a society or place reaches an advanced stage of social and cultural development and organization.

→ Homo habilis – Extinct species, ancestor of modern human.

→Nomadic – Moving from one place to another rather than living in one place all of the time.

→ Pastoralism – Animal Husbandry.

→ Decipherment – To discover the meaning of.

→ Hieroglyphs – Pictorial script.

→ Archaeology – Study of ancient evidence of the past.

→ Excavation – To remove the earth from a place in order to find old objects buried there.

→ Monochrome – Single colour.

→ Burnished – Polished by rubbing with a wooden or stone tool.

→ Applique work – Pasting wet clay ribbons and making patterns on them.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Intelligence students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Intelligence

Meaning And Perspectives On Intelligence:

• Intelligence is the highest attribute of human beings. Different psychologists have defined intelligence differently.
• Lewis Terman explains intelligence as, “an ability to think on an abstract level.”
• David Wechsler defines intelligence as, “the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.”

The two main perspectives on intelligence are –

Intelligence as a single, general ability – The classical notion of intelligence explains it as an unitary ability and only the functions of intelligence may take different forms. Psychologists like Alfred Binet, David Wechsler, William Stern and Lewis Terman believed that intelligence is a single index of cognitive abilities.

Intelligence as a set of multiple abilities – The modern view of intelligence as explained by psychologists like Charles Spearman, E.L. Thorndike, Howard Gardner, etc., states that multiple abilities are involved in intelligence. They believe that distinct types of intelligences exist.

• E. L. Thorndike – explained that intelligence consists of three independent abilities viz. Abstract intelligence, Social intelligence and Concrete intelligence.
• Louis Thurstone – explained that intelligence consists of seven Primary Mental Abilities viz. verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning and perceptual speed.
• Charles Spearman – proposed the Two Factor Theory of Intelligence i.e. General factor (g) minimum competence and Specific factor (s) specific abilities which are required to solve problems.
• Raymond Cattell and John Horn – The two types of intelligence are 1) fluid intelligence – dependent on neurological development, 2) crystallized intelligence – function of knowledge, experience.
• Howard Gardner – Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983) – There are nine independent types of intelligence viz. linguistic,logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential intelligence.

Measurement Of Intelligence:
Sir Francis Galton thought that he could determine intelligence by measuring the size of the human skull. He administered a battery of tests to measure variables such as head size, reaction time, visual acuity, etc. However, these tests did not prove useful to measure intelligence.

Raymond Cattell used the term ‘mental test’ for the first time. Like his mentor, Sir Galton, Cattell also believed that intelligence is best measured by sensory tasks. However, be emphasized that test administration must be standardized.

In 1905, Alfred Binet in collaboration with Theodore Simon published the First Scale of Intelligence. This scale was revised in 1908 and 1911. In 1916, Lewis Terman revised the scale, i.e., adapted few items, established new age norms etc. This came to be called ‘Stanford Binet Test’.

In 1917, Robert Yerkes and his colleagues developed the Army Alpha (verbal test) and Army Beta (performance test) intelligence tests. These two tests were used to recruit soldiers during the First World War. In 1939, during Second World War II also, to recruit army personnel, the Army General Classification Test was used.

In 1939, David Wechsler published the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. In 1955, the test was revised and then called Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). It has a verbal scale and performance scale.

Wechsler also developed a test to measure the intelligence of children, i.e., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). In 2008, Pearson released the WAIS-IV.

Mental Age – Alfred Binet introduced the concept of Mental Age. It is defined as the age at which the person successfully performs on all items of the test prepared for that age level. Mental Age need not correspond to Chronological Age. If Mental Age (MA) is the same as Chronological Age (CA), the person has average intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient – In 1912, William Stern introduced the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Terman refined the formula for calculating IQ which is as stated below –
IQ = \(\frac{\mathrm{MA}}{\mathrm{CA}}\) × 100

Types Of Intelligence Tests

Individual tests of intelligence – Individual tests of intelligence are tests which can be administered to a single person at a time, for e.g., Stanford Binet Scales, WAIS, Koh’s Block Design Test, etc. They require a trained, skilled psychologist to administer, score and interpret the test. Individual tests are more capable of measuring productive thinking.

Group tests of intelligence – Group tests of intelligence are tests that can be administered to more than one person at a time, i.e., for mass testing, for e.g., Army Alpha and Army Beta Test, Otis self-administration tests, etc. Group tests require less time consuming and more economical. However, they are less capable of measuring the creative aspect of intelligence.

Verbal tests of intelligence – Verbal tests of intelligence make use of words and numbers to measure intelligence. Subjects respond verbally to the test items, for e.g., WAIS, Army Alpha Test, etc. These tests are culture-bound but are useful to measure higher mental abilities.

Non-verbal tests of intelligence – Non-verbal tests of intelligence do not use language to measure intelligence.

They make use of pictures, designs, objects, etc. Such tests maybe

• Performance tests, e.g., Koh’s Block Design Test or
• Paper-pencil test e.g., Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices.

Non-verbal tests are culture-free and are also suitable for use with illiterate persons, children, etc. However, they are less suitable to measure higher mental abilities.

Application Of Intelligence Testing:

• Effective Schooling – On the basis of intelligence test scores, teachers can classify students into intellectual categories and devise special instructional programmes suited to their mental development.
• Aids Mental Health Personnel – Intelligence tests are helpful to Mental Health personnel such as psychologists etc., for diagnosis purposes and therapy.
• Effective Parenting – Parents can provide appropriate educational facilities to their children based on their IQ scores.
• Career Counselling – Scores obtained on intelligence tests help the student to select the right educational options/ courses.
• Vocational Counselling – Individuals can choose a suitable career and achieve job satisfaction when they make a realistic choice of vocation based on IQ scores.

New Trends In Intelligence:
Social Intelligence:
E.L. Thorndike proposed the term social intelligence. Howard Gardner included interpersonal intelligence in the Multiple Intelligences Theory. According to Karl Albrecht, “Social intelligence is the ability to get along well with others and to get them to cooperate with oneself’.

A continued pattern of nourishing behaviour indicates a high level of social intelligence. Such persons are skilled at interacting with and understanding people around them. They respect and encourage others. They effectively comprehend social dynamics.

Emotional Intelligence (El):
The term emotional intelligence was used for the first time by John Mayer and Peter Salovey. The concept of emotional intelligence was popularized by Daniel Goleman. It is defined as ‘the ability to perceive and monitor one’s own and others emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Emotional intelligence refers to a set of cognitive abilities such as perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions and managing (regulating) emotions. Persons with high emotional intelligence tend to be emotionally stable, patient, optimistic, enthusiastic and calm.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):
The term artificial intelligence was suggested by John McCarthy. Artificial intelligence is an innovation created by human intelligence. It is a field of study that combines computer science, algorithms, psychology, etc. It refers to enabling software programmes and computer systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, weather forecasting, language translations, etc.

Artificial intelligence can take decisions only on the basis of stored information and so it cannot be an alternative to human intelligence. Artificial intelligence has immense applications in daily life as well as to solve critical problems such as drones, Robotic Process Automation, medical diagnosis, etc.

Glossary:

→ Artificial Intelligence – A subfield computer science enabling software programs to run machines just like human intelligence

→ Emotional Intelligence – An individual’s ability to perceive. assess, evaluate and regulate one’s own and other’s emotions accurately.

→ Intelligence Quotient – The standard score of an individual’s intelligence based on an intelligence test, It is also known as IQ.

→ Mental age – Is a measure of a child’s performance on an intelligence test and relative to the performance of other children of the same age on the same test.

→ Performance tests – Any test that requires the individual to perform or do something such as completing a task or manipulating abjects rather than respond using language.

→ Social Intelligence – An individual’s ability Lo effectively relate to others.

→ Verbal tests – They make use of words and numbers to measure intelligence and subjects respond verbally to the test items.

→ Individual tests – They are tests which can be administered to a single person at a time.

→ Group tests – They are Lists that can be administered to more than one person at a time.

→ Intelligence – The aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 2 Money students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 2 Money

→ Concept of Money : It is an important concept. It has brought a revolutionary change in the economic life of human beings.
Modern economy is dependent on money. Barter system is replaced with introduction of money.

→ Difficulties in Barter System :

1. Problem of Double Coincidence of wants
2. Lack of common measure of value
3. Difficulties in storage of goods
4. Indivisibility of certain goods
5. Problem of making Deferred Payments

→ Definition of Money : “Money is anything that is generally acceptable as a mean of exchange and
at the same time acts as a measure and a store of value.” Prof. Crowther.

→ Evolution of Money :

1. Animal Money
2. Commodity Money
3. Metallic Money
4. Metallic Coins
5. Paper Money
6. Credit Money
7. Plastic Money
8. Electronic Money

→ Types of Money :

1. Animal Money : E.g. Cow, Sheep, Goat, etc.
2. Commodity Money : E.g. Feathers, Shells, Grains, Fur, etc.
3. Metallic Money : E.g. Gold, Silver, Copper, Aluminium, etc.
4. Metallic Coins : E.g. Full bodied coins → Face value = Intrinsic value
   E.g. Token coins → Face value > Intrinsic value
5. Paper Money : E.g. ₹. 1, ₹. 5, ₹. 50, ₹. 100 – notes, etc.
6. Bank Money (Credit Money) E.g. Cheque, Demand Draft, etc.
7. Plastic Money : E.g. Debit Cards, Credit Cards
8. Electronic Money (E-Money) : E.g. Mobile, Tablet, Smart Cards, Computer, Digital Wallet.

→ Legal and Non-legal tender money :

• Legal Tender Money is backed by law and it cannot be refused by anybody, while doing any transactions. E.g. all coins and currency notes prevailing in the country.
• Non-Legal Tender Money is not backed by law. It can be refused. It is evolved just to make transactions easy between buyer and seller. It is also called as optional money.

→ Qualities of Money :

1. General Acceptability
2. Divisibility
3. Durability
4. Cognizabity
5. Portability
6. Homogeneity
7. Stability

→ Functions of Money :

(A) Primary Functions:

• Medium of Exchange
• Measure of Value (Unit of Account)

(B) Secondary Functions:

• Standard /Deferred payments
• Store of Value
• Transfer of Value

(C) Contingent Functions:

• Measurement of N.I.
• Basis of Credit.
• Imparts liquidity to wealth
• Estimation of macro economic variables

→ Black Money :
It is a money earned through illegal activity. It is collected to evade tax. It encourages illegal activities like bribery, black marketing, hoarding, etc. It leads to political, economic and social instability in any country.

Word Meaning:

intellectual – Process of thinking and understanding; fundamental – basic, mechanical – use of machines, revolutionary – complete change, circulation – distribution, barter system – exchange of goods for goods, coincidence – by chance, perishable – gets spoilt easily, bulky – large, inconvenient – difficult not possible to do, indivisible – cannot be separated, deferred – in future, civilization – human, social and cultural development, evolutionary – development, protohistoric period – a period between prehistory and history, metallic – use of metal, precious – of great price, uniformity – similarity, affixed – attach, authorities – power, face value – exchange value of money, intrinsic value – value of the money, substitute – option, monopolized – controlled, denominations – face value of money, handling – to deal, monetary – dealing with money, digital wallets – electronic device for doing electronic transaction, durability – used for long period of time, cognizability – to be recognised, portability – easy to carry, homogeneous – same group, stability – fixed, medium – means to do, value – use, commercial – business, liquid asset – asset which can be converted into money, budget – estimated income and expenses set over period of time, illegal – not as per law, black marketing – trade using illegal activities, hoarding – holding the resources, bribery – influencing other by offering money, obstacles – problems, instability – not fixed, demonetization – change in current forms of money

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 1 Basic Concepts in Economics students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 1 Basic Concepts in Economics

→ Types Of Sciences :

Natural Sciences:

• Called as exact sciences
• E.g. Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry

Social Sciences:

• Called as abstract / behavioural /inexact sciences
• Eg. Psychology, Sociology, Economics

→ Origin of the term ‘Economics’ lies in the Greek word ‘Oikonomia’ meaning management of the household.

→ Economics → ‘Queen of Social Sciences’ — Paul Samuelson.

→ Types of Economic Systems:

1. Capitalism
2. Socialism
3. Mixed Economy

→ ‘Artha’ means Wealth’ and ‘Shastra’ means ‘Science’

→  Kautilya:

• Royal advisor
• A great statesman
• Philosopher
• Economist

→  Kautilya was also known by the names ‘Chanakya’ or ‘Vishnugupta’

→ Kautilya was an author of book Arthashastra’.

→ Adam Smith is called as “Father of Economics”

→  Classical School Of Thought:

• Adam Smith
• T. R. Malthus
• David Ricardo
• J.S Mill

→ Neo-Classical School Of Thought:

• Irving Fisher
• A.C Pigou
• Alfred Marshall

→ Modern School Of Thought

• J.M. Keynes
• Lionel Robbins
• Paul Samuelson

→ Branches Of Economics:

Micro Economics

• Greek word – ‘Mikros’
• means small

Macro Economics:

1. Greek word – ‘Makros’
2. means large / aggregate / total

→  Basic Concepts Of Micro Economics

• Wants
• Goods and Services
• Utility
• Value
• Wealth
• Personal Income
• Personal Disposable Income (PDI)
• Economic Activity

→ Characteristics Of Wants:

• Wants are unlimited
• Wants are recurring in nature
• Wants differ with age
• Wants differ with gender
• Wants differ due to preferences
• Wants differ with seasons
• Wants differ due to culture

→ Classification Of Wants:

(1) Economic & Non-economic Wants
E.g.

• Economic wants : food, medicines, etc.
• Non-economic wants : air, sun shine, etc.

(2) Individual Wants and Collective Wants
E.g.

• Individual wants : a doctor using stethoscope, a judge wearing his coat, a teacher using his duster
• Collective wants : travelling by train, bus, aeroplane, etc.

(3) Necessities, Comforts and Luxuries
E.g.

• Necessities : food, clothing, shelter, health and education
• Comforts : washing machine, mixer, pressure cooker, geyser, etc.
• Luxuries : AC-car, Air conditioner, diamond necklace, etc.

→ Goods and Services :

• Goods : Any commodity which satisfies human wants is called as goods. Eg. chalk, toothbrush, tooth paste, pen, pencil, eraser, etc.
• Services : Any kind of services which satisfy human wants is called as services. Eg. service of a doctor, teacher, lawyer, carpenter, cobbler, tailor, etc.

→ Utility : A power in a commodity or service to satisfy a human want is called as utility.

→ Values:

(1) Value in use:

• Worth / Usefulness of a commodity
• Eg. Water

(2) Value in Exchange:

• Worth of Commodity / Service expressed in terms of another commodity
• Eg. Diamond

→ Characteristics of Wealth:

• Utility
• Scarity
• Externality
• Transferability

→ Personal Income : Income received from all the sources is called Personal Income.
→ Personal Disposal Income : It is a part of Personal Income which is left behind after payment of taxes.

→Types Of Income

1. Fixed Income
2. Fluctuating income
3. Unearned income
4. Money income
5. Earned income
6. Real income
7. Residual income
8. Contractual income

Economic Activity:

Production:
Creation of utility
Factors of Production :

• Land – Rent
• Labour – Wages
• Capital – Interest
• Entrepreneur – Profit

Distribution:
Division of factor rewards among different segments of the society

Exchange:
Sale and Purchase of goods and services

Consumption:
Making use of goods and services to satisfy human wants

→ Concept Of Macro Economics

• National Income
• Saving
• Investment
• Trade Cycles
• Economic Growth
• Economic Development

Economic Growth:

• indicates increase in the real national income of the country
• narrow and quantitative concept
• possible without economic development
• uni-dimensional concept
• it is spontaneous and reversible
• measured in terms of national income and per capita income

Economic Development:

• indicates economic growth plus progressive changes
• broader and qualitative concept
• not possible without economic growth
• multi-dimensional concept
• it is deliberate and irreversible
• measured in terms of agricultural productivity, industrial productivity, quality of human life, etc.

Word Meaning:

inventions – to create, empirical approach – method of inquiry and observation by experiments, psychology- study of mental behaviour of human being, abstract – ideas without any physical or concrete existence, sociology – study of social behaviour of human being, tendencies – behaviour, acquiring – to obtain, treatise – study of, broadest – large, crucial – important, compilation – list of something, statesman – political leader, literacy – written, Laissez faire – without any interference of Government, Neo-classical – time period between 1660 – 1798, attainment – a thing to achieve, requisites – necessary, material welfare – to get all the basic needs for well being, scarce – limited, alternative – many, comparatively – in compare of something, priority – importance, coined – create. Micro – small, variables – factor which changes, desire – strong feeling to have something, unending – something which has no ends, occasional – sometime, chronological – in order, preferences – choices, influence – effect, monetary – exchange of goods transaction and services in which money is involved, value – importance, well-furnished – well decorated, capacity – the total amount of something contains, immense – importance, utility – useful, transferability – to pass something from one person to another, tangible – physically can be touched, Notional – assumed, efficiency – productivity, earnings – income, stable – fixed, fluctuating – changing, contractual – as per the agreement, residual – leftover, unearned – earning without actual working, entrepreneur – a person who sets and runs the business, charity – to help other in form of money/material, reward – returns/ benefits, labour – do work physically, macro – large, aggregate – total, estimate – to calculate, foregoing- sacrificing, mobilization – moving, inflation – continuous rise in price (increase in price), depression – Continuous fall in price (decrease in price), quantitative – measured by quantity of something, progressive – continuous, multi-dimensional – in several measuring ways, narrow – small, spontaneous – immediate, reversible – moving in backward direction, deliberate – for long time, per capita income – each person income, paradox – opposite statement, qualitative – measured in terms of quality of something.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The World Since 1991 students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The World Since 1991

Introduction
The disintegration of the Soviet Union ended the era of the Cold War as well as the East-West division of the world. Developments in the post-Cold War period can be analyzed through five dimensions –

End of the Cold War and rise of new States:
The East European revolution of 1989, led to assertion of ethnic nationalism based on the right to self-determination. It was an expression of the middle class for freedom and economic well-being as well as for autonomy and eventually for independence. Many new States were created based on ethnic identity for e.g., Yugoslavia split into States like Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, etc. Similarly, 15 new States were created after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Emergence of Unipolarity:
In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. The USA led a multinational force to free Kuwait from Iraqi control. The US President, George H. Bush had described this victory as ‘New World Order as the multinational support to the USA came from NATO, Israel, Soviet Union, China and many Arab countries.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the world became unipolar and the New World Order implied US dominance and leadership in matters of global security. This had political and economic dimensions. The US employed “Soft Power” method i.e., without use of coercion or military force but through socio-cultural and economic influence.

Human rights and Humanitarian intervention:
There have been many instances of ethnic conflicts and bloodshed in the creation of new States particularly in Bosnia, East Timor, Somalia, Cambodia, etc. The UN Peacekeeping Force has intervened in a number of conflict situations to bring about peaceful resolution of the conflict as well as to maintain peace and protect human rights.

Humanitarian intervention refers to an increasing awareness about the significance of human rights and the need for their protection.

Terrorism:
Terrorism is defined as the use of violence or the threat to use violence, with an intention to create panic in society, in the pursuit of political/religious/ideological goals. Terrorist groups indulge in hijackings, bombings, etc., and are usually associated with separatist movements.

Modern-day terrorist operations are global in nature. Some instances of terrorist attacks post-1991, include Al-Qaeda attacks on 11th September 2001 in Washington D.C., Bali (2002), Mumbai (2008), etc.

Multipolarity and Regionalism:
In the post-Cold War era, the USA emerged as the only superpower. However, in recent times, the dominant position of the USA has been challenged due to the rise of Asian nations like China, Japan and India; creation of the European Union; military resurgence of Russia and growing importance of regional organisations like SAARC, etc.

Regionalism refers to creation of regional organisations based on geographical proximity or on common ideological, political, economic concerns in areas like communication, health, energy, education, etc. In the 1960s, organisations like ASEAN focused on economic issues while others like NATO focused on security issues. Some regional organisations are :

European Union (EU): The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and European Economic Community (EEC) were created to foster economic interdependence. On 7th February 1992, the Maastricht Treaty was signed, to create the European Union. This led to expansion of spheres of cooperation to include internal affairs, judicial matters, foreign policy, etc.

The Euro (EU); is the official currency of 19 out of 28 countries of the EU. These nations are collectively called Eurozone. The Schengen Agreement (1985) was signed by France, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg. Today 22 countries are part of the Schengen Area which is an area without internal borders. The EU functions on four key institutions viz., European Commission, European Parliament, European Council and European Court of Justice. The UK formally ended its membership of the EU on 31st January 2020.

SAARC – It was formed in 1985 at Dhaka with seven members viz., Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. In 2006, SAFTA was activated. Afghanistan joined SAARC in 2007. There are also nine observers such as EU, China, UK, USA, etc.

BIMSTEC – The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation was established in 1997. It comprises of five countries from South Asia viz., Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka and two countries from South-East Asia viz., Myanmar, Thailand. BIMSTEC aims to facilitate collaboration and rapid economic development among countries lying in adjacent areas of the Bay of Bengal.

BRICS – This organization was created in 2009 by members Brazil Russia India and China. In 2010, South Africa joined it. BRICS nations are fast-growing economies and have significant influence on global affairs.

G-20 – This forum was created in 1999 with the aim to discuss policies relating to financial stability. It includes developed countries like the USA, UK, France, Germany, the EU as well as developing countries like Argentina, Brazil, India, etc.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) – It was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. In 2016, India and Pakistan joined SCO. The focus of SCO is to bring about peace, stability, and cooperation in the Eurasian region.