Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 10 Economic Planning in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 10 Economic Planning in India

→ Economic Planning in India:

• Responsible for formulation of economic plans
• Established by Government of India in 1950
• Consists of experts in banking, finance, etc.
• The Prime Minister acts as Ex-officio Chairman of the Planning Commission

→ Meaning And Definition Of Economic Planning:

(1) Economic planning is –

• a time bound programme
• to achieve certain objectives
• with the help of available resources
• by the planning authority.

(2) Dr. H. D. Dickinson
Economic planning is making of major economic decisions such as –

• What and how much to produce.
• When and where to produce
• To whom it is to be allocated

(3) Mrs. Barbara Wooten
“Planning is a conscious and deliberate choice of economic priorities by some public authority

→ Features of Economic Planning:

1. Central Planning Authority
2. A Survey
3. Objectives
4. Priorities and Targets
5. Mobilisation of Resources
6. Plan Period
7. Evaluation
8. Continuous Process
9. Co-ordination
10. Flexibility

→ 12th Five Year Plan (2012 – 2017):
↓
Sustainable Growth
↓
Targets Of 12th Five Year Plan:

1. Economic Growth:

• To achieve real GDP growth rate at 8%.
• To achieve agriculture growth rate at 4%.
• To achieve manufacturing or industrial growth rate at 10%.
• To achieve higher average growth rate for every State.

2. Poverty And Employment:

• To reduce head-count ratio of poverty.
• To create new work opportunities in the non-farm sector.

3. Education:

• To increase mean years of schooling to 7 years.
• To provide access to higher education.
• To eliminate gender and social gap in school.

4. Health:

• To reduce total fertility rate.
• To reduce malnutrition among children.

5. Infrastructure:

• To increase investment in infrastructure.
• To connect villages with all weather roads.
• To increase rural television and telephone density.

6. Environment and Sustainability:
To increase green cover by 1 million hectare.

7. Service Delivery:

• To provide access to banking services to households.
• To shift subsidies to direct cash transfer through Aadhar card.

→ Niti Aayog (National Institution For Transforming India):

• Formation of NITI Aayog was an innovative and remarkable step to reinforce the principles of federalism and decentralisation of power.
• Accelerate economic growth and development.
• Think – Tank Functions :
  • aims to evolve a sha vision of national development with the active involvement of state.
  • Co-operative federalism

→ Pillars of Niti Aayog:

• Vision Document of India
• Appraisal Document
• Transforming India: Lecture series
• Doubling of Farmers’ Income
• Global Entrepreneurship Summit 2017
• Outcome Budget and Output-Outcome Framework.
• Launching of Programme.

→ Structure Of Niti Aayog:

1. Governing Council

• Chief ministers of all States
• Governors of Union Territories

2. Regional Councils:
to address specific issues and contingencies impact on more than one state

3. Special Invitees
Experts, specialists, practitioners nominated by Prime Minister.

4. Organizational Framework

• Chairperson : Prime Minister of India
• Vice Chairperson: appointed by the Prime Minister.
  Full time members – 5
  Part time members – 2
• Ex-officio Members Maximum of 4 members from Council of Ministers, nominated by the Prime Minister.
• Chief Executive Officer (CEO) appointed by the Prime Minister for fixed period in the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
• Secretariat (if necessary)

→ Functions Of Niti Aayog:

• Shared National Agenda
• States’ Best Friend at the Centre
• Decentralized Planning
• Knowledge and Innovation Hub
• Monitoring and Evaluation
• Co-operative and Competitive Federalism

Others Functions :

• Inter consultancy
• Conflict Resolution
• Technological upgradation

Word Meaning:

designated – to appoint; comprehension – overall/including all; conscious – aware; deliberate – purpose; priorities – great importance; accelerating – to speed up; attainment – to achieve; varies – to differ; appraisal – to judge something; incorporate – include; implementation – to carry out; sustainable – to be maintained; opportunities – openings; eliminate – to remove; malnutrition – lack of proper food for necessary growth and health; beneficiaries – a person who gets benefits; reinforce – to promote; federation – government system; decentralisation – transfer of authority; sanctioned – to approve; premier – top most; contingencies – emergency; championing – to promote; consultancy – professional practitioner giving expert advice; state of the art – modern; replication – to copy something; rigorous – strict; metrics – a standard; bottlenecks – blockage.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World

Introduction
India has played an active role in international relations even before independence for e.g. India was a signatory at the San Francisco Conference that gave shape to the United Nations Charter.

The primary objectives of India’s Foreign Policy are –

• maintenance of international peace and security.
• protection of the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• maintaining good relations with neighbouring countries and with regional groups such as ASEAN.
• greater integration with the world economy to sustain a high growth rate.

The principles of India’s foreign policy are –

→ respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all States.

→ non-intervention in the internal affairs of any other States.

→ respect for international law.

→ belief in peaceful coexistence and peaceful resolution of international disputes.

→ active participation in international and regional organisations.

→ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is called the ‘architect of India’s foreign policy.

Factors Influencing India’s Foreign Policy:

Geography – The extensive coastline of the Indian peninsula and the Himalayan mountain ranges have shaped India’s security and foreign policy. India shares a border with all neighbouring countries of South Asia. It also holds a dominant position in the Indian Ocean.

History – It includes the influence of traditional cultural values, cultural ties as well as values like anti-colonialism which were imbibed during the freedom struggle.

Economy – The strong urge to come out of poverty and economic backwardness created by the colonial period as well as the policy of Non-Alignment shaped India’s foreign policy. India followed democratic socialism through the policy of import substitution and importance to the public sector. Post-1991, after adopting the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation many changes have occurred in India’s foreign policy.

Polity – Political leadership has a significant impact on India’s foreign policy for e.g., Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lai Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi have played a decisive role in determining India’s foreign policy. Ministry of External Affairs and National Security Advisor play an important role in formulating foreign policy.

International situation – During the Cold War, superpower politics had impacted India’s foreign policy e.g., adopting Non-Alignment. Similarly, conditions such as end of the Cold War, Indo-US dialogues, China-Pakistan relations, growth of regional organisations, etc., have impacted the foreign policy of India.

India’s Relations With The World:
→  Relations with major powers in the world During the Cold War, USA and Soviet Union were the superpowers. In the 21st century, Russia and China have emerged as major powers. ‘

United States of America (USA):
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had supported the cause of India’s independence, However, relations between USA and India remained strained for most of the Cold War period. Close relations of the USA with Pakistan and its position on the Kashmir issue have been irritants in Indo-US relations. Following India’s second nuclear tests (1998) the US imposed sanctions on India.

→ However, from the start of this century Indo- US ties have improved due to the following reasons –

Anti-terrorism stance: India supported President George W. Bush’s war on terrorism. Similarly, after the 2001 terrorist attack on Indian Parliament by Pakistan-supported terrorist groups, US demanded that Pakistan should stop sponsoring cross-border terrorism.

Partnership and Agreements: The US regards India as a major partner in the Indo- Pacific region. India regards the USA as a major source of investment and partner in trade and defence as well as in multilateral fora like India-US-Japan. In 2008, the India- US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was signed by which India became the only country outside NPT that has nuclear capabilities.

Soviet Union / Russia:
During the Cold War era, Soviet Union provided aid to India in the form of technology, weapons and low-interest credit to India’s heavy industry projects in the public sector. Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1971) is considered a milestone in their bilateral relations.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia agreed to provide reactors for India’s Kudankulam nuclear power plant and for joint ventures to produce Sukhoi fighter aircraft and Brahmos missiles. Both India and Russia have major stakes in Russia oil fields such as Sakhalin-1 highlighting the importance of energy security.

China: In 1949, the Communist revolution took place in China. India was among the first nations to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement and India also recognised Chinese suzerainty on Tibet.

The main hindrances in Sino-Indian relations are –

• 1962 Indo-China war, 2017 Doklam skirmish
• Border disputes in Aksai Chin and NEFA region
• China has been critical of India offering political asylum to the Dalai Lama
• Chinese support to Pakistan
• India’s apprehensions against China’s Belt and Road Initiative.

On the positive side, India-China relationship has improved due to –

→ Agreement on maintenance of peace and tranquillity along the LOC

→ China has become among the largest trading partners of India

→ India and China are part of BRICS and SCO

→ In the late 1990s, Russia mooted the idea of a Trilateral Summit of Russia, China, India which was a recognition of India’s status as a major regional power.

Relations with Africa:
In the first few decades after independence, India supported the fight against apartheid and provided financial and material aid to liberation struggles in Africa for eg., the AFRICA Fund created at the NAM Summit (Harare)
There are several issues in the context of India-African relations

→ The India-Africa summit was held in 2015.

→ About 24 per cent of Indian crude oil imports are sourced from the African continent eg., ONGC Videsh has invested in Sudan and Egypt.

→ About two million people in Eastern and Southern Africa constitute the India diaspora which is considered as an asset by the Indian government.

→ Indian industries are interested in offering technological and material services to developing African nations.

→ India continues to be one of the military training destinations e.g., National Defence Academy, Pune has the ‘Sudan Block’ as a symbol of cooperation between India and Sudan.

→ Countries from Somalia to South Africa fall under the India maritime strategic perspective. Hence, cases of terrorism and piracy in Somalian waters have made this region sensitive to Indian concerns.

Relations with the Neighbourhood:
All South Asian countries share a border with India. Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka are regarded as India’s neighbours. Countries in the India Ocean Region (IOR), from East Africa, Persian Gulf to Malaysia, Vietnam as well as countries in the Central Asian hinterland of IOR form India’s extended neighbourhood.

India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the idea of Asian-African regionalism. This led to initiatives like Asian Relations Conference (1947) and Bandung conference (1955)

Relations with Pakistan: The main cause of the tensions between India and Pakistan has been the status of Kashmir. This led to the 1947-48 conflict and 1965 war. Efforts to improve Indo-Pak relations include 1972 Shimla Agreement, 1999 Lahore Agreement, etc.

Himalayan Kingdoms: Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim were British protectorates. Sikkim opted to integrate with India (1975). Relations with Bhutan have been cordial. However, relations with Nepal have seen ups and downs.

Bangladesh: India played a major role in securing independence for Bangladesh in 1971. Major issues in Indo – Bangladesh relations were about distribution of waters of Teesta river, land and maritime boundaries, Chakma refugees, etc. Cross border terrorism is a concern for both countries.

Sri Lanka: India and Sri Lanka had a disputed maritime boundary. The main issue here is Sri Lanka had accused India of supporting the LTTE.

Myanmar: It was a co-convener at the Bandung Conference. However, after the military coup in 1962 there was a cooling off in Indo-Burma relations. India extended support to the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar under its leader Mrs. Aung San Suu Kyi. The support of Myanmar is vital in India’s action against militant groups hiding in Myanmar

West Asia: India has been a supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and yet ensured that it maintains good relations with Israel. Similarly, India has shared cordial historical and cultural ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia.

South-East Asia: Indonesia under Sukarno had co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with Vietnam have always been good. India had openly criticised US intervention in Viet Minh. As part of its “Look East” and “Act East” policy, India has improved relations with countries like Japan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., The areas of cooperation include security of trade routes, anti-piracy operations, etc.,

India has a Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN and is also a partner in ASEAN promoted ARF. India has been an active partner in SCO, BIMSTEC, etc.,

India Ocean Region: The coastline presents both challenge and opportunity to India due to its trade and security perspectives. The Naval Plans Paper (1948) expressed India’s maritime vision. In the 1971 war with Pakistan, the Indian Navy played a significant role. Bharatmala and Sagarmala projects are significant. The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation was created in 1997 to promote sustained and balanced growth of the region. It has 22 Member States and 9 Dialogue Partners.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory

Introduction:

• Memory is an ability by which information ¡s encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.
• The hippocampus plays an important role in the storage of memory.
• Memory functions to preserve our sense of identity, interpersonal relationships, solving problems, and making decisions.
• Three basic processes of memory are Encoding! acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval.
• Three stages of memory are Sensory information store, Short Term Memory (STM), and Long Term Memory (LTM).
• Baddeley called STM a working bench of memory. He has given the working memory model.

Measurement of memory:

• The major ways of measuring memory are: Recall, Recognition and Relearning.
• Recall method: It involves remembering a fact, event or object that is not currently
  physically present and requires a direct uncovering of information from memory. Recall can be free or serial.
• Recognition method: Here, a person has to point out or recognise previously learnt material which is presented to him in a different context. It is relatively easier than the recall method.
• Relearning method: It measures retention by measuring how much faster one learns a previously learnt material after time interval. It is also known as saving method as there is saving of time when one relearns the same material.

Some phenomena related to memory:

1. Flashbulb memory: Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event. These memories are preserved in autobiographical in considerable detail, almost like a photograph.
2. Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Sometimes when we search through library of memory experiences to retrieve information from LTM, we cannot recall it even when we have that information on the tip of the tongue.

Forgetting and its causes:

1. Forgetting is the failure to retrieve the material from long-term memory.
2. The pioneer of experiments on forgetting was Hermann Ebbinghaus.
3. The various causes of forgetting are trace decay, trace distortion interference, and motivated forgetting.

Memory improvement techniques:

• Keyword method: Here, any two different pieces of information can be linked together.
• Encoding specificity: It states that memory ¡s improved when information is available while learning is also available at the time to recall.
• Method of loci: It involves creating an imaginary route to remember better.
• Mnemonic devices: Mnemonics include acronyms or the first letter technique.
• Practice and rehearsal: It results in better retention and recall.
• Minimizing interference: We should not learn similar subjects together.
• POWER method: Here, P stands for Preparation, O stands for Organisation, W stands for Work, E stands for Evaluation, and R stands for Rethinking.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System

Nervous system:

• Nervous system is the complex network of neurons that carry signals from brain to body and body to brain.
• Our nervous system consists of two major parts, viz, Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• CNS consists of brain and spinal cord.
• PNS consists of somatic and autonomic nervous system.
• Somatic nervous system is further divided into sensory and motor system.
• Autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
• Neurons are the building blocks of nervous system.
• A neuron consists of dendrites, axon, cell body and terminal button or telodendria.
• Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers.
• Some important neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate and GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid).

Brain:

• The study of Psychology can’t be complete without studying the brain.
• Our brain helps to adapt to the environment and plays a crucial role in every aspect of life.
• The brain consists of three major parts, viz, hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
• Hindbrain consists of cerebellum, brain stem and reticular activation system.
• Midbrain consists of two parts, viz, superior and inferior colliculus,
• Forebrain consists of cerebrum. The outside cover of cerebrum is called as cerebral cortex.
• The surface of cerebral cortex is divided into two halves: right and left hemisphere.
• Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, viz, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.
• The limbic system is also an important part of the brain.
• The limbic system consists of hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• The various pillars of better brain functioning are physical and mental exercise, nutrition, tackling medical problems, sleep and relaxation, mental fitness as well as social interaction.

Spinal cord:

• The spinal cord extends from neck to waist.
• Its main function is to send information from brain to body and from to body to brain.
• It controls reflex actions like salivation, sneezing, knee jerk, blinking of eyes.
• It is connected to the periphery through 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is joined to spinal cord through two routes: dorsal and ventral route.

Glands:

• Glands are specialised groups of cells or organs that secrete chemical substances.
• There are many glands. All glands fall into two categories, viz, endocrine and exocrine.
• Exocrine glands are also called as duct glands. e.g. sweat gland, tear gland etc.
• Endocrine glands are called as ductless glands. e.g. pituitary gland, thyroid gland etc.
• Endocrine glands secrete vital chemical substances called hormones.
• Hormones have strong impact on human behaviour.
• Over (hyper) or under (hypo) secretion of hormones may lead to a variety of problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress

Being well adjusted: A dynamic balance:

• Richard Lazarus: Stress ¡s a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed the personal and social resources an individual is able to mobilize.
• Indian philosophy: Our desires and involvement in the material world are the cause of our stress which leads to Kiesha. There are five types of Kleshas.
• All of us experience stress at different points and everyone deals with it ¡n their own way.
• Moderate stress helps one to achieve optimum performance.

Types of stress and Gas:

• Hypo stress: It is caused when one has nothing to do at all. Due to hypo stress, an individual feels bored, demotivated, unenthusiastic, and restless.
• Hyper stress: It is caused due to extremely pressurizing conditions. Due to hyper stress, a person may panic and engage in exaggerated reactions, leading to frustration and agitation.
• Eustress: It is a positive form of stress. Eustress has a beneficial effect on health, motivation, performance and emotional well-being.
• Distress: It is a negative type of stress and is experienced when the normal routine of an individual is constantly altered and adjusted. Two types of distress are: Acute and Chronic distress.
• Acute distress is an intense, short-term negative stress while chronic distress is a long-lasting, recurrent negative distress.
• Hans Selye introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model in 1936.
• GAS showed the effects of stress on the human body.
• GAS model consists of three stages: Alarm stage, Resistance stage, and Exhaustion stage.

Stressors and conflict of motives:

• Stressors are environmental conditions, external stimuli, or events that cause stress.
• There are two types of stressors, viz, internal stressors and external stressors.
• Interna I stressors are stressors within us.
• External stressors are stressors resulting from the outside environment.
• Conflict of motives refers to the clash between two or more equally strong and incompatible motives occurring at the same time that compels an individual to make a choice.
• The types of conflict are Approach-Approach conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict, and Double Approach-Avoidance conflict.

Coping with stress: strategies:

• Everyone tries to deal with internal and external stressors and resolve conflicts.
• If one does not resolve the conflicts, it leads to stress.
• There are two broad strategies of coping with stress: Problem and emotions-focused coping.
• Problem-focused coping is known as a direct way of reducing stressors or resolving conflict.
• Problem-focused coping involves three strategies: Attack, Compromise, and Withdrawal.
• Emotion-focused coping involves reducing negative emotional responses associated with stress.
• According to Freud’s theory, our personality is controlled by ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Our reaction in a particular situation will depend upon the interaction of ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Defence mechanism is an indirect way to combat stress.
• Some popular defence mechanisms are repression, displacement, projection, sublimation, identification, daydreaming and rationalisation.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 3 Partition Values students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 1 Basic Concepts in Economics

→ Types Of Averages:

(1) Arithmetic Mean ( \(\bar{x}\) ):

• Individual Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum x}{n}\)
• Discrete Series / Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)
• Continuous Series / Data Direct Method
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)

(2) Mode (Z):

• Individual Data
  Maximum Repeated value
• Discrete Series/ Data
  Maximum Frequency Value
• Continuous Series / Data
  \(\mathrm{Z}=l+\left[\frac{f_{1}-f_{0}}{2 f_{1}-f_{0}-f_{2}}\right] \times h\)

(3) Median (M) :

• Individual Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Discrete Series I Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Continuous Series I Data
  M = \(l\left(\frac{\frac{n}{2}-c . f .}{f}\right) \times h\)

→ 29th June is celebrated as “Statistics Day” in India to recognise the contributions of noted Indian
Statistician. Prof. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.

→ Partition Values : Values which divide the data into required number of equal parts are called partition value or fractiles.

→ Partition Values:

• Percentiles
• Quartiles
• Median
• Deciles

→ Application Of Partition Value:

1. Quartiles
2. Deciles
3. Percentiles

Quartiles:

• Used in study of Financial Information
• E.g.
  • Economic Data
  • Income Data
  • Stock Data
  • Sales
  • Survey Data, etc

Deciles:
Used in Finance and Economics
Used to Study:

• Level of economic
• Inequality
• Measurement of poverty line
• Drought cohdition, etc.

Percentiles:
Used in Measurement of test scores, health indication, household income, household wealth, etc.

→ Quartiles : Quartiles are the values (data) which divide the series (distribution) into four equal parts. They are the 3 values that divide the distribution into 4 parts, each representing one quarters of the score. These 3 values are called as first quartile (Q₁), second quartile (Q₂) and third quartile (Q₃). Second quartile is nothing but the median.

→ Quartiles

Q₁ Individual Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):

Step:

1. Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₁ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

Q₂ Median Individual Data:
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
= size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data :
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{2n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₂ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{2 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h
   [Note : Q₂ = D₅ = P₅₀ Median]

Q₃ Individual Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₃ = size of \(\left(\frac{3 n}{4}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\)
2. Q₃ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{3 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

→ Deciles : They are the values of data which divide the whole set of observations into 10 equal parts. There are 9 points i.e. , D₁, D₂ to D₉ which divide the data into 10 equal parts. While calculating Deciles, data has to be arranged in ascending or descending order.

• Individual Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=j\left(\frac{n+1}{10}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\) [where j = 1,2, ……..9]
• Continuous Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=l+\left(\frac{\frac{j n}{10}-c f}{f}\right) \times h\) [where j = 1,2, ………….9]

→ Percentiles : It divides the whole set of observations into 100 equal parts. There are 99 percentile.
They are denoted by P₁, P₂ to P₃ ………….. P₉₉ The 50th percentile is called as Median.

(i) Individual Data and Discrete Data : P_k = size of k \(\left(\frac{n+1}{100}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\) [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]
(ii) Continuous Data : P_k = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{k n}{100}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]

Word Meaning:

procedure – steps; arithmetic – study of numbers; mean – average; median – middle; quartiles – divided into four equal groups; deciles – divided into 10 equal groups; percentiles – divided into 100 equal groups; descriptive – to describe; poverty – poor; acquainted – to get to known; statistical – use of statistics; magnitude – in great extent; misinterprets – misunderstand; survey – observe; fluctuations – changes; inflation – increase in price; povertyline – minimum required income to get basic needs of life; drought – no rainfall in an area; portfolio investments – range of investments; bench marking – measuring the performance; baseline – minimum way tci compare; observations – the data in numbers; frequency distribution – mathematical function; symbolically – representating in terms; cumulative – increased in quantity by adding one after other continuously.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become aware of and understand the world around us. It includes processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size, movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence, motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement, etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.

Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation. In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning meaning to information received about the environment based on the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:
Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize top-down processing, our ability to understand information is influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:
Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together. Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path. Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involves the manipulation of information.

The core elements of thinking are –

• Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
• Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes, acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to form more complex concepts.
• Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them.
• Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

• Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the problem correctly.
• Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for possible solutions to the problem.
• Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers to be the most effective solution.
• Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution – The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results, he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The period helps to work out the problem without consciously thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

• It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
• Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in muscular movements.
• Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:
Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F. Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:
Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:
Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision making, etc.

Glossary:

→  Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→  Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past experiences and memory and helps in perception and interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental representation and manipulation of information.