Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World

Introduction
India has played an active role in international relations even before independence for e.g. India was a signatory at the San Francisco Conference that gave shape to the United Nations Charter.

The primary objectives of India’s Foreign Policy are –

• maintenance of international peace and security.
• protection of the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• maintaining good relations with neighbouring countries and with regional groups such as ASEAN.
• greater integration with the world economy to sustain a high growth rate.

The principles of India’s foreign policy are –

→ respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all States.

→ non-intervention in the internal affairs of any other States.

→ respect for international law.

→ belief in peaceful coexistence and peaceful resolution of international disputes.

→ active participation in international and regional organisations.

→ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is called the ‘architect of India’s foreign policy.

Factors Influencing India’s Foreign Policy:

Geography – The extensive coastline of the Indian peninsula and the Himalayan mountain ranges have shaped India’s security and foreign policy. India shares a border with all neighbouring countries of South Asia. It also holds a dominant position in the Indian Ocean.

History – It includes the influence of traditional cultural values, cultural ties as well as values like anti-colonialism which were imbibed during the freedom struggle.

Economy – The strong urge to come out of poverty and economic backwardness created by the colonial period as well as the policy of Non-Alignment shaped India’s foreign policy. India followed democratic socialism through the policy of import substitution and importance to the public sector. Post-1991, after adopting the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation many changes have occurred in India’s foreign policy.

Polity – Political leadership has a significant impact on India’s foreign policy for e.g., Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lai Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi have played a decisive role in determining India’s foreign policy. Ministry of External Affairs and National Security Advisor play an important role in formulating foreign policy.

International situation – During the Cold War, superpower politics had impacted India’s foreign policy e.g., adopting Non-Alignment. Similarly, conditions such as end of the Cold War, Indo-US dialogues, China-Pakistan relations, growth of regional organisations, etc., have impacted the foreign policy of India.

India’s Relations With The World:
→  Relations with major powers in the world During the Cold War, USA and Soviet Union were the superpowers. In the 21st century, Russia and China have emerged as major powers. ‘

United States of America (USA):
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had supported the cause of India’s independence, However, relations between USA and India remained strained for most of the Cold War period. Close relations of the USA with Pakistan and its position on the Kashmir issue have been irritants in Indo-US relations. Following India’s second nuclear tests (1998) the US imposed sanctions on India.

→ However, from the start of this century Indo- US ties have improved due to the following reasons –

Anti-terrorism stance: India supported President George W. Bush’s war on terrorism. Similarly, after the 2001 terrorist attack on Indian Parliament by Pakistan-supported terrorist groups, US demanded that Pakistan should stop sponsoring cross-border terrorism.

Partnership and Agreements: The US regards India as a major partner in the Indo- Pacific region. India regards the USA as a major source of investment and partner in trade and defence as well as in multilateral fora like India-US-Japan. In 2008, the India- US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was signed by which India became the only country outside NPT that has nuclear capabilities.

Soviet Union / Russia:
During the Cold War era, Soviet Union provided aid to India in the form of technology, weapons and low-interest credit to India’s heavy industry projects in the public sector. Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1971) is considered a milestone in their bilateral relations.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia agreed to provide reactors for India’s Kudankulam nuclear power plant and for joint ventures to produce Sukhoi fighter aircraft and Brahmos missiles. Both India and Russia have major stakes in Russia oil fields such as Sakhalin-1 highlighting the importance of energy security.

China: In 1949, the Communist revolution took place in China. India was among the first nations to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement and India also recognised Chinese suzerainty on Tibet.

The main hindrances in Sino-Indian relations are –

• 1962 Indo-China war, 2017 Doklam skirmish
• Border disputes in Aksai Chin and NEFA region
• China has been critical of India offering political asylum to the Dalai Lama
• Chinese support to Pakistan
• India’s apprehensions against China’s Belt and Road Initiative.

On the positive side, India-China relationship has improved due to –

→ Agreement on maintenance of peace and tranquillity along the LOC

→ China has become among the largest trading partners of India

→ India and China are part of BRICS and SCO

→ In the late 1990s, Russia mooted the idea of a Trilateral Summit of Russia, China, India which was a recognition of India’s status as a major regional power.

Relations with Africa:
In the first few decades after independence, India supported the fight against apartheid and provided financial and material aid to liberation struggles in Africa for eg., the AFRICA Fund created at the NAM Summit (Harare)
There are several issues in the context of India-African relations

→ The India-Africa summit was held in 2015.

→ About 24 per cent of Indian crude oil imports are sourced from the African continent eg., ONGC Videsh has invested in Sudan and Egypt.

→ About two million people in Eastern and Southern Africa constitute the India diaspora which is considered as an asset by the Indian government.

→ Indian industries are interested in offering technological and material services to developing African nations.

→ India continues to be one of the military training destinations e.g., National Defence Academy, Pune has the ‘Sudan Block’ as a symbol of cooperation between India and Sudan.

→ Countries from Somalia to South Africa fall under the India maritime strategic perspective. Hence, cases of terrorism and piracy in Somalian waters have made this region sensitive to Indian concerns.

Relations with the Neighbourhood:
All South Asian countries share a border with India. Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka are regarded as India’s neighbours. Countries in the India Ocean Region (IOR), from East Africa, Persian Gulf to Malaysia, Vietnam as well as countries in the Central Asian hinterland of IOR form India’s extended neighbourhood.

India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the idea of Asian-African regionalism. This led to initiatives like Asian Relations Conference (1947) and Bandung conference (1955)

Relations with Pakistan: The main cause of the tensions between India and Pakistan has been the status of Kashmir. This led to the 1947-48 conflict and 1965 war. Efforts to improve Indo-Pak relations include 1972 Shimla Agreement, 1999 Lahore Agreement, etc.

Himalayan Kingdoms: Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim were British protectorates. Sikkim opted to integrate with India (1975). Relations with Bhutan have been cordial. However, relations with Nepal have seen ups and downs.

Bangladesh: India played a major role in securing independence for Bangladesh in 1971. Major issues in Indo – Bangladesh relations were about distribution of waters of Teesta river, land and maritime boundaries, Chakma refugees, etc. Cross border terrorism is a concern for both countries.

Sri Lanka: India and Sri Lanka had a disputed maritime boundary. The main issue here is Sri Lanka had accused India of supporting the LTTE.

Myanmar: It was a co-convener at the Bandung Conference. However, after the military coup in 1962 there was a cooling off in Indo-Burma relations. India extended support to the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar under its leader Mrs. Aung San Suu Kyi. The support of Myanmar is vital in India’s action against militant groups hiding in Myanmar

West Asia: India has been a supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and yet ensured that it maintains good relations with Israel. Similarly, India has shared cordial historical and cultural ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia.

South-East Asia: Indonesia under Sukarno had co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with Vietnam have always been good. India had openly criticised US intervention in Viet Minh. As part of its “Look East” and “Act East” policy, India has improved relations with countries like Japan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., The areas of cooperation include security of trade routes, anti-piracy operations, etc.,

India has a Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN and is also a partner in ASEAN promoted ARF. India has been an active partner in SCO, BIMSTEC, etc.,

India Ocean Region: The coastline presents both challenge and opportunity to India due to its trade and security perspectives. The Naval Plans Paper (1948) expressed India’s maritime vision. In the 1971 war with Pakistan, the Indian Navy played a significant role. Bharatmala and Sagarmala projects are significant. The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation was created in 1997 to promote sustained and balanced growth of the region. It has 22 Member States and 9 Dialogue Partners.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory

Introduction:

• Memory is an ability by which information ¡s encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.
• The hippocampus plays an important role in the storage of memory.
• Memory functions to preserve our sense of identity, interpersonal relationships, solving problems, and making decisions.
• Three basic processes of memory are Encoding! acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval.
• Three stages of memory are Sensory information store, Short Term Memory (STM), and Long Term Memory (LTM).
• Baddeley called STM a working bench of memory. He has given the working memory model.

Measurement of memory:

• The major ways of measuring memory are: Recall, Recognition and Relearning.
• Recall method: It involves remembering a fact, event or object that is not currently
  physically present and requires a direct uncovering of information from memory. Recall can be free or serial.
• Recognition method: Here, a person has to point out or recognise previously learnt material which is presented to him in a different context. It is relatively easier than the recall method.
• Relearning method: It measures retention by measuring how much faster one learns a previously learnt material after time interval. It is also known as saving method as there is saving of time when one relearns the same material.

Some phenomena related to memory:

1. Flashbulb memory: Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event. These memories are preserved in autobiographical in considerable detail, almost like a photograph.
2. Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Sometimes when we search through library of memory experiences to retrieve information from LTM, we cannot recall it even when we have that information on the tip of the tongue.

Forgetting and its causes:

1. Forgetting is the failure to retrieve the material from long-term memory.
2. The pioneer of experiments on forgetting was Hermann Ebbinghaus.
3. The various causes of forgetting are trace decay, trace distortion interference, and motivated forgetting.

Memory improvement techniques:

• Keyword method: Here, any two different pieces of information can be linked together.
• Encoding specificity: It states that memory ¡s improved when information is available while learning is also available at the time to recall.
• Method of loci: It involves creating an imaginary route to remember better.
• Mnemonic devices: Mnemonics include acronyms or the first letter technique.
• Practice and rehearsal: It results in better retention and recall.
• Minimizing interference: We should not learn similar subjects together.
• POWER method: Here, P stands for Preparation, O stands for Organisation, W stands for Work, E stands for Evaluation, and R stands for Rethinking.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System

Nervous system:

• Nervous system is the complex network of neurons that carry signals from brain to body and body to brain.
• Our nervous system consists of two major parts, viz, Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• CNS consists of brain and spinal cord.
• PNS consists of somatic and autonomic nervous system.
• Somatic nervous system is further divided into sensory and motor system.
• Autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
• Neurons are the building blocks of nervous system.
• A neuron consists of dendrites, axon, cell body and terminal button or telodendria.
• Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers.
• Some important neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate and GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid).

Brain:

• The study of Psychology can’t be complete without studying the brain.
• Our brain helps to adapt to the environment and plays a crucial role in every aspect of life.
• The brain consists of three major parts, viz, hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
• Hindbrain consists of cerebellum, brain stem and reticular activation system.
• Midbrain consists of two parts, viz, superior and inferior colliculus,
• Forebrain consists of cerebrum. The outside cover of cerebrum is called as cerebral cortex.
• The surface of cerebral cortex is divided into two halves: right and left hemisphere.
• Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, viz, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.
• The limbic system is also an important part of the brain.
• The limbic system consists of hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• The various pillars of better brain functioning are physical and mental exercise, nutrition, tackling medical problems, sleep and relaxation, mental fitness as well as social interaction.

Spinal cord:

• The spinal cord extends from neck to waist.
• Its main function is to send information from brain to body and from to body to brain.
• It controls reflex actions like salivation, sneezing, knee jerk, blinking of eyes.
• It is connected to the periphery through 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is joined to spinal cord through two routes: dorsal and ventral route.

Glands:

• Glands are specialised groups of cells or organs that secrete chemical substances.
• There are many glands. All glands fall into two categories, viz, endocrine and exocrine.
• Exocrine glands are also called as duct glands. e.g. sweat gland, tear gland etc.
• Endocrine glands are called as ductless glands. e.g. pituitary gland, thyroid gland etc.
• Endocrine glands secrete vital chemical substances called hormones.
• Hormones have strong impact on human behaviour.
• Over (hyper) or under (hypo) secretion of hormones may lead to a variety of problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress

Being well adjusted: A dynamic balance:

• Richard Lazarus: Stress ¡s a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed the personal and social resources an individual is able to mobilize.
• Indian philosophy: Our desires and involvement in the material world are the cause of our stress which leads to Kiesha. There are five types of Kleshas.
• All of us experience stress at different points and everyone deals with it ¡n their own way.
• Moderate stress helps one to achieve optimum performance.

Types of stress and Gas:

• Hypo stress: It is caused when one has nothing to do at all. Due to hypo stress, an individual feels bored, demotivated, unenthusiastic, and restless.
• Hyper stress: It is caused due to extremely pressurizing conditions. Due to hyper stress, a person may panic and engage in exaggerated reactions, leading to frustration and agitation.
• Eustress: It is a positive form of stress. Eustress has a beneficial effect on health, motivation, performance and emotional well-being.
• Distress: It is a negative type of stress and is experienced when the normal routine of an individual is constantly altered and adjusted. Two types of distress are: Acute and Chronic distress.
• Acute distress is an intense, short-term negative stress while chronic distress is a long-lasting, recurrent negative distress.
• Hans Selye introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model in 1936.
• GAS showed the effects of stress on the human body.
• GAS model consists of three stages: Alarm stage, Resistance stage, and Exhaustion stage.

Stressors and conflict of motives:

• Stressors are environmental conditions, external stimuli, or events that cause stress.
• There are two types of stressors, viz, internal stressors and external stressors.
• Interna I stressors are stressors within us.
• External stressors are stressors resulting from the outside environment.
• Conflict of motives refers to the clash between two or more equally strong and incompatible motives occurring at the same time that compels an individual to make a choice.
• The types of conflict are Approach-Approach conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict, and Double Approach-Avoidance conflict.

Coping with stress: strategies:

• Everyone tries to deal with internal and external stressors and resolve conflicts.
• If one does not resolve the conflicts, it leads to stress.
• There are two broad strategies of coping with stress: Problem and emotions-focused coping.
• Problem-focused coping is known as a direct way of reducing stressors or resolving conflict.
• Problem-focused coping involves three strategies: Attack, Compromise, and Withdrawal.
• Emotion-focused coping involves reducing negative emotional responses associated with stress.
• According to Freud’s theory, our personality is controlled by ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Our reaction in a particular situation will depend upon the interaction of ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Defence mechanism is an indirect way to combat stress.
• Some popular defence mechanisms are repression, displacement, projection, sublimation, identification, daydreaming and rationalisation.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 3 Partition Values students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 1 Basic Concepts in Economics

→ Types Of Averages:

(1) Arithmetic Mean ( \(\bar{x}\) ):

• Individual Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum x}{n}\)
• Discrete Series / Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)
• Continuous Series / Data Direct Method
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)

(2) Mode (Z):

• Individual Data
  Maximum Repeated value
• Discrete Series/ Data
  Maximum Frequency Value
• Continuous Series / Data
  \(\mathrm{Z}=l+\left[\frac{f_{1}-f_{0}}{2 f_{1}-f_{0}-f_{2}}\right] \times h\)

(3) Median (M) :

• Individual Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Discrete Series I Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Continuous Series I Data
  M = \(l\left(\frac{\frac{n}{2}-c . f .}{f}\right) \times h\)

→ 29th June is celebrated as “Statistics Day” in India to recognise the contributions of noted Indian
Statistician. Prof. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.

→ Partition Values : Values which divide the data into required number of equal parts are called partition value or fractiles.

→ Partition Values:

• Percentiles
• Quartiles
• Median
• Deciles

→ Application Of Partition Value:

1. Quartiles
2. Deciles
3. Percentiles

Quartiles:

• Used in study of Financial Information
• E.g.
  • Economic Data
  • Income Data
  • Stock Data
  • Sales
  • Survey Data, etc

Deciles:
Used in Finance and Economics
Used to Study:

• Level of economic
• Inequality
• Measurement of poverty line
• Drought cohdition, etc.

Percentiles:
Used in Measurement of test scores, health indication, household income, household wealth, etc.

→ Quartiles : Quartiles are the values (data) which divide the series (distribution) into four equal parts. They are the 3 values that divide the distribution into 4 parts, each representing one quarters of the score. These 3 values are called as first quartile (Q₁), second quartile (Q₂) and third quartile (Q₃). Second quartile is nothing but the median.

→ Quartiles

Q₁ Individual Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):

Step:

1. Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₁ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

Q₂ Median Individual Data:
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
= size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data :
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{2n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₂ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{2 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h
   [Note : Q₂ = D₅ = P₅₀ Median]

Q₃ Individual Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₃ = size of \(\left(\frac{3 n}{4}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\)
2. Q₃ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{3 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

→ Deciles : They are the values of data which divide the whole set of observations into 10 equal parts. There are 9 points i.e. , D₁, D₂ to D₉ which divide the data into 10 equal parts. While calculating Deciles, data has to be arranged in ascending or descending order.

• Individual Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=j\left(\frac{n+1}{10}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\) [where j = 1,2, ……..9]
• Continuous Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=l+\left(\frac{\frac{j n}{10}-c f}{f}\right) \times h\) [where j = 1,2, ………….9]

→ Percentiles : It divides the whole set of observations into 100 equal parts. There are 99 percentile.
They are denoted by P₁, P₂ to P₃ ………….. P₉₉ The 50th percentile is called as Median.

(i) Individual Data and Discrete Data : P_k = size of k \(\left(\frac{n+1}{100}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\) [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]
(ii) Continuous Data : P_k = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{k n}{100}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]

Word Meaning:

procedure – steps; arithmetic – study of numbers; mean – average; median – middle; quartiles – divided into four equal groups; deciles – divided into 10 equal groups; percentiles – divided into 100 equal groups; descriptive – to describe; poverty – poor; acquainted – to get to known; statistical – use of statistics; magnitude – in great extent; misinterprets – misunderstand; survey – observe; fluctuations – changes; inflation – increase in price; povertyline – minimum required income to get basic needs of life; drought – no rainfall in an area; portfolio investments – range of investments; bench marking – measuring the performance; baseline – minimum way tci compare; observations – the data in numbers; frequency distribution – mathematical function; symbolically – representating in terms; cumulative – increased in quantity by adding one after other continuously.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become aware of and understand the world around us. It includes processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size, movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence, motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement, etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.

Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation. In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning meaning to information received about the environment based on the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:
Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize top-down processing, our ability to understand information is influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:
Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together. Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path. Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involves the manipulation of information.

The core elements of thinking are –

• Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
• Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes, acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to form more complex concepts.
• Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them.
• Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

• Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the problem correctly.
• Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for possible solutions to the problem.
• Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers to be the most effective solution.
• Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution – The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results, he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The period helps to work out the problem without consciously thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

• It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
• Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in muscular movements.
• Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:
Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F. Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:
Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:
Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision making, etc.

Glossary:

→  Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→  Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past experiences and memory and helps in perception and interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental representation and manipulation of information.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline

Introduction:
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘knowledge’. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence.

The key features of science are:

• Empirical evidence – It refers to acquiring information through direct observation or experiments. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence.
• Objectivity – This refers to the ability to observe and accept facts as they exist, setting aside all sources of expectations, values, prejudices, etc.
• Scientific causality – Science aims to establish a cause-effect between the variables under consideration, i.e., the effect of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable.
• Systematic exploration – Science adopts a sequential procedure for studying various phenomena. It includes scientific steps like formulating a hypothesis, collection of facts, scientific generalisation etc.
• Replication – Scientific knowledge can be replicated under the same circumstances as the original experiment. This ensures reliability of results towards establishing a scientific theory.
• Predictability – Science involves describing and explaining phenomena as well as to make predictions accordingly.

History Of Psychology As A Science:

• Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. It was earlier a branch of philosophy. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig (Germany), Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory. This led to psychology as a separate scientific discipline.
• Structuralism advocated by Wundt and Titchener is regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. Functionalism was advocated by William James. Psychoanalysis was proposed by Sigmund Freud.
• In the early 20th century, John Watson advocated a new school of thought in psychology, i.e., Behaviourism. It focused on the study of observable behaviours.
• In the later half of the 20th century, Humanistic Psychology was advocated by Carl Rogers. It focused on the power of free will towards self-actualization.
• American Psychologist, Ulric Neisser, is considered as the founder of Cognitive Psychology which focuses on cognitive processes.

Research Methods In Psychology:

Experimental Method – The systematic observation about a certain problem under controlled laboratory conditions is called an experiment.

The steps involved in an experiment are:

• identifying the problem,
• formulating a hypothesis,
• selecting an experimental design,
• conducting the experiment and data collection,
• data analysis,
• drawing conclusions.

The features of the experimental method are :

• it is the most objective and scientific method of studying behaviour
• it helps to establish cause-effect relationship between two or more variables
• the findings of an experiment are verifiable.
• The limitations of this method are :
• it may not be possible to control all intervening variables,
• it has a limited scope, i.e., there may be ethical constraints or risk factors
• experimenter’s expectations or participant attitude may influence the conclusions.

Survey Method – A survey is a research method used to collect data from a pre-determined group of respondents, i.e., a sample. It is used to obtain information about the preferences, opinions, etc., of the ‘sample’ population making use of tools like questionnaires, checklists, interviews, etc.

Survey method is employed by social psychologists, industrial psychologists, etc. The researcher must ensure that the sample of respondents is representative of the population.

Observation Method – It is a research method that is employed in conditions where experiments may not be possible or even necessary. Observation method is used by child psychologists and social psychologists. It may be carried out in a natural setting, for e.g., observing candidates waiting their turn for an interview or may be done in controlled conditions.

It is a time-consuming, subjective method. It needs to be carried out in a systematic manner for it to be considered as scientific.

Case Study Method – It is a qualitative research method employed by clinical psychologists. It provides intensive, descriptive information about an individual from multiple sources such as family, peers, school, etc.

This helps to assess the person’s level of psychological and social functioning. Researchers employ techniques like observation, interviews, psychological tests, etc.

Correlation Method – A correlation refers to a statistical tool used to measure the relationship between two or more variables.

If the change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the other variable, this interdependence is called correlation. It is measured by correlation coefficient which extends between -1.00 to +1.00.

The types of correlation are :
Positive correlation – Both variables either increase or decrease at the same time, for e.g., extent of rehearsal (revision) ↑ and recall score ↑. The value of positive correlation from 0.00 to + 1.00. It is represented as :

Negative correlation – An increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other and vice versa. The value of the correlation is between 0.00 to -1.00, for e.g., bunking of lectures (↑) and score in exams (↓).

Zero correlation – A change in one variable leads to no significant change in the other variable, for e.g., height and intelligence.

Challenges In Establishing Psychology As A Science:

Many criticisms of psychology as a science have been made on practical, philosophical and ethical grounds.

The challenges in establishing psychology as a science are :

• It is in pre paradigmatic state – According to American philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, psychology is still in a preparadigmatic state as it has not succeeded in producing a cumulative body of knowledge that has a clear conceptual core. In psychology, basic paradigms on which the whole scientific inquiry can rest do not exist.
• Issues related to objectivity and validity – Methods used in psychology such as introspection, surveys and questionnaires are subjective. Due to this, psychology lacks two criteria of science, i.e., objectivity and validity.
• Issues related to predictability and replicability – In psychology, it is difficult to make exact predictions as people respond differently in different situations. Test results tend to be more varied and hence difficult to replicate.
• Objectifying humans – According to some psychologists, subjecting human behaviour to experimentation amounts to objectifying human beings.

Rationality:
One of the significant aims of individuals is the attainment of happiness. However, in the pursuit of happiness, one should not be driven by irrational influences or compromise on social norms and ethics. Psychology helps to improving life quality by applying the concept of rationality in daily life.

According to Stanovich, “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgement and good decision making.”

According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality helps a person to successfully attain goals and be happy. He proposed Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), which is a popular intervention method in counselling psychology.

According to Ellis, rational people possess characteristics such as:

• Understanding both self-interest and social interest – Rational people understand what choices help them to grow and take responsibility for their actions. They are also careful not to violate the rights of others.
• Self-direction – The person does not demand excessive attention or support from others as he/she assumes the responsibility for his/her own life.
• Tolerance – It is the willingness to accept beliefs and behaviour patterns of others that may differ from our own way of thinking.
• Flexibility – Rational people tend to be flexible and unbiased in their thoughts and actions.
• Self-acceptance and self-responsibility – A rational person accepts him/herself unconditionally as well as takes responsibility for his/her thoughts, emotions and behaviour.

The concept of rationality can be explained as :

Glossary:

→ Correlation Coefficient – A number which denotes the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables, it ranges between .1.00 to + 1.00.

→  Independent Variable – The variable being studied in an experiment it may change due to manipulations of the independent variable.

→ Hypothesis – A tentative explanation that can be tested to determine if it is true.

→ Independent Variable – In an experiment the variable that is systematically changed or manipulated by the experimenter in order to study its effect on the dependent variable.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in research.

→ Participant In a research study the individual who voluntarily participates and whose behaviour is being studied. Also called a subject or experimental participant.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research study that consists of a senes of questions that is used to collect information from the participants.

→ Replicability – It is the possibility to replicate a research or its findings in order to test its validity.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India

→ Unemployment: It is a situation in which people in the age group of 15 to 59 years though able and willing to work at the available wage rate but unable to get a job.

→ As per N.S.S.O:
As Per National Sample Survey Organisation (N.S.S.O.)

1. Unemployed
2. Underemployed
3. Employed

Unemployed:
One who work for less than 14 hours per week

Underemployed:
One who work for 15-28 hours a week

Employed:
One who work for 8 hours per day or 273 days in a year

→ Concept of Unemployment:

Involuntary Unemployment:
Situation where people willing to work – but no work is available.

Voluntary Unemployment:
Situation where a person is fit and able to work but not willing to work.

Underemployment:
Situation where a person’s capacity to work is under utilised.

Full Employment:
Situation where all available resources used fully in most efficient manner.

→ Causes of Unemployment

1. Jobless growth
2. Increase in labour force
3. Migration of rural population
4. Excessive use of machinery
5. Lack of skill development programmes
6. Slow rate of economic development
7. Seasonal nature of agriculture
8. Expectations towards employment

→ Types of Unemployment:

→ Effects of Unemployment:

Economic Effects:

• Waste of human resources
• Difficult to implement welfare schemes
• Poverty and income inequality
• Growth of informal sector
• High dependency ratio

Social Effects:

• Social tension and unrest
• Loss of human dignity
• Helplessness

→ Measures to Reduce Unemployment:
General Measures:

• Development of agricultural sector
• Provision for alternative occupation
• Development of infrastructure
• Reforms in the educational system
• Development of Tourism
• Use of labour-intensive techniques
•  Development of Information technology and communication
• Provision for vocational training and skill development facilities
• Rural industrialization
• Motivation for self employment

Specific Measures:

• Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS)
• Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
• Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
• Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
• ‘Training Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM)
• ‘Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
• ‘Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
• ‘Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana 2014
• ‘National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship -2015
• Start up India Initiative
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana-(2016-20)

Word Meaning:

unemployment – state of being not working; mass- large number; gambling – playing games with intention to earn money; anti-social – against law and custom of the society; prevailing – at a particular time; hypothetical – unreal; slack season – lack of work; disguised – invisible; surplus – excess; over crowding – presence of more people in a given space; white collar jobs – administrative jobs; adaptability – adjust to new condition; capital intensive – large amount of money to run business; computerisation – doing activities/work through computer; depression- decline/slowdown; drastic – major; mismatch – differences; unprecedented – not known; abundant – available in large quantity; vocational – education relating to an occupation; compatible – suitable; aspire – aim for; dependency – seeking support / depend on; mission – target/aim, viable – achievable, advocacy – policy, aspiration – goal, cyclical – occuring in cycle.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Humanitarian Issues students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Humanitarian Issues

Introduction

Globalization brought in concepts like participatory State, environmental concerns, awareness of human rights, etc. Today, humanitarian issues have assumed significance.

Environment refers to everything that makes up our surroundings i.e., the conditions in which organisms live. The environment includes the natural environment i.e., all living and non-living things (e.g., soil, atmosphere, water, etc) that occur naturally as well as built environment i.e., natural environment that is modified into a human environment e.g., roads, bridges, etc.

Efforts to protect the environment-

→ UN Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) The purpose was to encourage and provide guidelines for the protection of the environment.

→ World Commission on Environment and Development (1983) also called Brundtland Commissions put forward the concept of sustainable growth.

→ Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) sought to raise public awareness on the need to integrate environment and development and to create a partnership between developing and more industrialized nations to ensure a healthy future for the planet.

→ Earth Summit at Johannesburg (2002) recognized sustainable development as the most important goal for institutions at the national, regional, and international levels.

→ UN Conference on sustainable development (Rio-2012) is also called Rio Earth Summit or Rio+20. Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality.
Its goal is to conserve natural resources, reduce pollution, develop alternate sources of power, etc.

Some of the important environmental concerns include –

→ Climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions have resulted in extreme weather conditions like flooding, wildfires, etc.

→ Pollution – Smog, air pollution, etc endanger public health.

→ Deforestation worsens global warming and also threatens humans and animals who rely on forests to sustain themselves

→ Water scarcity is a worldwide problem.

→ Loss of Biodiversity is mainly due to climate change and threatens food security and population health.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate change is the nodal agency in India for planning, promotion, coordination, and implementation of the country’s environmental and forest policies and programmes. The main concerns of MoEFCC relate to the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity and the prevention of pollution. It is guided by the principle of sustainable development.

Poverty And Development:
The traditional perception of poverty is where people are unable to provide for their basic necessities of life. It is the deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food, clothing, shelter, and safe drinking water. The alternate view of poverty focuses on both material and non-material aspects i.e., focus on community ties, values and availability of common resources, participatory decision making, and political and economic decentralization.

The purpose of development is to ensure the welfare of the people and is associated with economic growth. The traditional approaches to development focus on the predominant role of the State in promoting economic growth (Socialist) or the role of a free-market economy (Capitalist). Since the 1990s, the alternative view of development that focuses on both material and non-material aspects has become acceptable. The focus today is a development based on equity, participation, empowerment, and sustainability.

According to ECOSOC, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities and a violation of human dignity. Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods.

The first UN Decade for poverty eradication (1997-2006) and the second UN Decade for ‘poverty eradication (2008-2017) stated that poverty is the greatest global challenge and that it is necessary to bring about sustainable development to alleviate poverty. Democratization and protection of human rights are key components of good governance that are necessary to eradicate poverty.

Poverty And Development In India:
India’s vision of development had three aspects :

→ Modernisation of the Economy – During the Nehruvian period, the focus was on land reforms, irrigation and large scale industrialisation to provide employment and increase productivity.

→ Self-reliance – This included ‘import substitution strategy to develop indigenous industry.

→ Socialist pattern of society – It was based on promotion of the Welfare State, employment generation and importance to the public sector. The Planning Commission (March 1950 to 31st December 2014) was created to chalk out Five Year Plans for development.

→ ‘Growth with Social Justice and Equity has been India’s policy towards poverty and development. Its development strategy has evolved over the years. In the early stages, government played a dominant role through the public sector. The 1960s were the period of the Green Revolution.

In the 1980’s India faced on economic crisis, due to poor performance of the public sector and wasteful public expenditure programmes. After 1991, wide-ranging economic reforms were initiated. Policies of economic liberalisation and privatisation of public sector were initiated.

→ The government, along with private sector and civil society continue to play an important role in socio-economic development. The Global MPI released by the UNDP indicates that between 2005-06 and 2015-16 incidence of multidimensional poverty has decreased from 54.7% to 27.5%.

Gender Issues:

There is a distinct link between poverty and unsatisfactory conditions of women. In most parts of the world, women are poor due to cultural norms and unequal power equations between men and women. In the 1970s, women’s empowerment came to be accepted as an important philosophy to bring about gender justice.

The UN ‘Decade for Women’ began in 1976 with the following objectives:

• to link women’s issues with developmental issues
• to promote equal rights and opportunities for women across the globe.

Some of the important gender-related issues in India:

→ Economic inequality – There is a high level of the male-female wage gap. The participation of women in the labour force is only 28.2 %

→ Literacy rate – As per the 2011 census report, the female literacy rate is 65.46% as compared to 82.14% of male literacy

→ Trafficking and exploitation – Women in India, especially in the hinterland, are vulnerable to be forced into marriage, to work as maids or in the flesh trade

→ Low political representation – There is a 33% reservation for women in elected local bodies only. Women representatives are few, both in Parliament and in most State legislatures.

→ The 1st Lok Sabha had 24 women (5%) and the 17th Lok Sabha has 78 women (14%) which is the highest representation to date. The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was set up in 1953 to carry out welfare activities for women, children, etc.

The evolution of approaches to women’s issues are :

→ Welfare approach – It focused on community development through Mahila Mandals, health, and education programmes, etc.

→ Development approach – It focused on the rights and status of women in areas of health, education, and employment.

→ Empowerment approach – It focused on the participation of women in planning and implementing welfare schemes was necessary.

→ National Commission for Women (NCW) was established on 31st January 1992 under provisions of the NCW Act (1990).

→ 73rd and 74th amendments (1993) provided for reservation of seats in local bodies (like Municipalities, Panchayats) for women. Department of Women and Child Development was set up as a separate ministry in 2006 to create gender equitable and child-centered legislation and programmes.

Legislations for women’s welfare include the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, Muslim Women (Protection of Right of Marriage) Act, (2019).

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India

Important Kingdoms in South India Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties:
Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were the ancient ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms in the South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ ‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one of the main sources of history of South Indian rulers.

Chola Dynasty: The Chola Kingdom was established in first-century C.E. Chola dynasty originated in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu) This province was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had established their rule from Pudukkottai to Kanyakumari.

Vakataka Dynasty: The power of Satavahanas started growing weaker from the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took. advantage of this situation and established independent rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti, King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in the North and from Gujarat to South upto Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). Kolhapur was known as ‘Kuntala’ at that time. Pravarasena I performed four Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title ‘Samrat’.

Chalukyas: During the rule of Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya dynasty ruled in the south for. approximately 200 years. Jaising was the founder of this dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E. he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami). His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first important king of the Chalukyas.

He built the fort of Badami. He performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’.

Pallavas: Around 6th century C.E. to 9th century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the most powerful rulers in South India. Historians vary in their views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the Pallavas are found. There is a mention of Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas.

We get a detailed information of the Pallava dynasty beginning from the reign of Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting etc.

Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga was the first powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in North India as well.

Shilaharas: There were three branches of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan, north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar-Ter, Osmanabad district). Jimutvahan is considered as the founder of all the three branches. They ruled for almost three hundred years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and later the Chalukyas.

Shilaharas of South Konkan:
‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar set up the village of Vallipattana and built a fort there. Later King Adityavarma expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa. Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty. The history of this dynasty is known with the help of one of the copper plates found at Kharepatan.

Shilaharas of North Konkan:
Kapardi established the north Kokan branch of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane).

Aparajita was another important king of this branch. He ruled for around thirty-five years. Chittaranjan followed Aparajita asking. His brothers fought for their claim to the throne.

Shilaharas of Kolhapur:
The modern districts of Satara, Sangli, Ratnagiri, and Belgaum were included in this kingdom. Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur, Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur are credited with the creation of the magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple at Khidrapur.

Gonds: The Gond dynasty was established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the founder of this dynasty. He brought the people of Gond tribe together and encouraged them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He established the capital at Sirpur.

In the later period, Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was constructed during his period.

Yadavas: Yadava dynasty is one of the important dynasties of medieval Maharashtra. Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded the kingdom by defeating the v Kalachuris. He established his capital at Devgiri and got himself coronated.

In the later period, Singhan was an important ruler of this dynasty. He defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and expanded the rule of Yadavas.

Administrative system, trade, social life:
In the administrative systems of South Indian dynasties, there were officials such as ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’, ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc. The council of officers in the Chola kingdom was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was divided into many provinces.

These provinces were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of the royal family was the chief of the Mandalam. There were many officers under him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’, ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The administration of the Southern kingdoms was very efficient.

Literature, art, architecture:
The ‘Sangham literature’ is supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil tradition. This literature is one of the main sources of political history of South India. It is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council) were held. This period was important from the point of view of Sanskrit literature.

Kalidasa composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule, compositions in Prakrit language were created. Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’. ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena, the founder of Vatsagulm branch of Vakatakas.

Two styles of architecture are seen in South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture. The Dravida style of architecture emerged and developed in the regions from Krishna river to Kanyakumari. The important feature of Dravida architecture identified by construction of Shikhara. In this type the storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises. Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore are some of the excellent examples of Dravida style of architecture.

Glossary:

→ Reign – To rule a country.

→ Expedition – A journey undertaken for a specific purpose.

→ Province – An administrative division or unit of a country.

→ Feudatories – Persons who hold lands by feudal tenure.

→ Prevalent – Common.