Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes

→ Natural vegetation and wildlife change according to latitudes. Hence, a variety of natural vegetation is found in different regions from the equator to the poles.

→ Biome : An area where different types of flora and fauna live together in the same region in the same type of climatic conditions is called a biome.

→ It is the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.

Elements of climate that affect the boundaries of biomes:

1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Amount of insolation received
5. Soil conditions

Biome:
The combined co-existence of flora and fauna which is a result of the region’s climate.
Ecosystem:
The interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Biotic Factors:
They consist of plants, various types of animals, bacteria, etc.
Abiotic Factors:
They consist of soil, water, sunlight and nutrients.

→ Through the abiotic factors, the biotic components receive supply of nutrients and energy.

Tropical Rainforest Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 0° to 10° N and S.
• Vegetation : Biodiversity is very high.
  Categorized into three layers – lowermost layer – bushes; middle layer low trees: third layer – tall, huge trees.
• Animal Life : Three-tier system of trees allows every bird and animal to have its own niche in the areas from the ground to the tree top.
• Human Life : Indigenous tribes live primitive lives.
  Practice primary occupations – like food-gathering and hunting.
• Use of Biome by Man : Hardwood is used in construction and making furniture.
  For this, some regions are being over exploited.
• Current Scenario: Degradation is increasing because of increasing agriculture and industrialisation. Rare species of animals and birds are threatened.

Tropical Deciduous Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: 5° to 30° N and S.

Vegetation: Deciduous Forests – trees drop leaves in dry season; they are dense and lush in rainy season.

Animal Life: A large diversity in fauna. Biodiversity found in these biomes ranks second in the world.

Human Life : Easier than that in the rainforest.
People practicing primary and secondary occupations based on forest are found here.
Various tribal communities inhabit these regions.
There are rural and urban areas, too.
These forests are being encroached upon.

Use of Biome :

• Wood from teak has many uses.
• Plants are used for medicines and secondary products.
• Bamboos are used for construction of houses and agriculture.
• Various fruits and spices are also obtained.

Current Status :

• Forests are in danger due to deforestation and wildfire.
• Wild species are endangered by humans through extensive use of fertilizers and spray of insecticides.
• This biome is influenced by human population.

Savannah Grassland Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent : 10° to 20° N and S.
• Vegetation : Grasslands with perennial cover of grass that grows 3 m to 6 m in height. Elephant Grass – thick, coarse, broad-leaved.
  Very few shrubs and trees found.
• Animal Life : The abundance of grass cover and its perennial nature makes savannah biomes rich in herbivore animals.
• Human Life Grass provides shelter to animals. Biome also supports carnivore animals. Comparatively difficult human life.
• Use of Biome In the past this biome was used to hunt for trophies and hence was known as a heaven for hunting.
• Current Status Victim of frequent forest fires; loss of biodiversity.
  Due to overgrazing, industrialisation and agriculture the area under grassland is decreasing, leading to extension of the Sahara Desert in Africa.

Tropical Desert Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 20° to 30° N and S
• Vegetation: Dispersed due to dry climatic conditions.
  Typical desert vegetation.
• Animal Life: Limited biodiversity. Few large animals in desert.
  Small animals – burrowing type.
  Birds and insects are also found.
• Human Life Human life is very difficult.
  Depending on the availability of water, animal husbandry or agriculture is followed.
  Human settlements found only near oasis, in a dispersed manner.
• UseofBiome : Dates are produced as food item.
  Agriculture with the help of irrigation. Mining is also an activity.
• Current Status : Desertification is increasing. ,

Mediterranean Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 30° to 40° N and S.
• Vegetation: Shorter trees.
  Mixed vegetation: evergreen and deciduous.
  Trees of citrus family, shrubs of coloured flowers.
• Animal Life: Herbivores, birds of prey, reptiles and various types of insects and honeybees.
• Human Life: Pleasant climate.
  Human life has flourished very well. Industries based on fruits and flowers. Tourism and development of cinema industry.
• Current Status: Tertiary occupations and urbanisation has increased.
  Biodiversity found in plants and animals is decreasing due to human interference.

Temperate Deciduous Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 50° N and S.
• Vegetation: Broad-leaved trees.
  3 levels of trees : tall trees, short trees, and shrubs.
  Hardwood and deciduous trees.
• Animal Life: Animals have thick and soft fur.
  Birds and insects are found.
• Human Life: Forests provide food, wood and ample amount of oxygen.
  Forests being encroached upon for agriculture.
• Current Status: Biome reducing due to agriculture and encroachment by settlements. Biodiversity has reduced.
  Habitat of animals is being encroached upon.

Temperate Grasslands Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 55° N and S.
• Vegetation: Soft grass is dominant.
  Not many types of trees.
• Animal Life: Rich and varied animal life.
  Herbivore animals are found.
• Human Life: Human settlements are sparse.
  Earlier, hunting was the main occupation. Presently, agriculture and animal rearing.
• Current Status : Commercial agriculture is increasing.
  Industries are increasing.
  Meadows and pastures are reducing because of over grazing.
  Biome is getting degraded.

Taiga Biome :

Latitudinal Extent : 50° to 55° N.

Vegetation :One type of tree species.
Evergreen coniferous forests.
Tall trees, tapering to the apex.
Waxy leaves and branches tapering to the ground do not let snow stay on the trees.

Animal Life: Animals have thick hides to survive the snow-covered ground.

Human Life: Climate is very cold, so human settlement is sparse.
Occupation is lumbering.
Saw mills, paper pulp, wooden furniture industries.

Current Status: Deforestation is easy because the wood is soft.

Tundra Biome:

Latitudinal Extent: 65° to 90° N.

Vegetation: It is the coldest biome.
Ground is frozen for 8 months of the year.
There is a layer of permanently frozen ground below the surface, called permafrost.
Vegetation has adapted to the cold and short growing season.

Animal Life: Very scarce animal life.
Animals have thick fur, layers of fats in their bodies to face the cold climate.

Human Life: Very sparse human settlements.
Recently life has changed and fishing methods have improved. Exploitation of fish is faster.

Current Status: Biome is experiencing more development due to increased transportation and means of communication.
Standard of life has improved.
Global warming is badly affecting the snow cover and the dependent species.

Mountain or High Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: Not specific.
It depends on altitude, slopes of high mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Rockies.

Vegetation: Ranges from deciduous to tundra according to altitude.
Plants are small and perennial.

Animal Life: Animals with special adaptation to snow.

Human Life: In some areas, people grow crops.
Grazing and sheep rearing are primary occupations.
Tourism has developed in such biomes.
Transhumance is practiced.

Current Status: Over tourism has caused overcrowding.
Mountain biomes are threatened by deforestation, wildfires, hunting, poaching and urban sprawl.

Aquatic Biomes :
Besides the terrestrial biomes of the world, we find biomes in the water too. For example, oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.

Aquatic Biomes :

1. Freshwater Biomes
2. Marine Biomes
3. Wetland Biomes
4. Coral Reef Biomes
5. Estuaries

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance

Indian Ocean – Introduction :

• The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean in the world. Its average depth is 4000m,
• It is the only ocean in the world named after a particular country, i.e., India.
• It occupies about 20 percent of the total oceanic area.
• The Indian Ocean spreads between Africa in the west, Asia in the north and east, Australia in the east and Southern Ocean in the south.
• It is blocked northwards, resulting in development of monsoon climate of the Indian sub-continent.

Bottom Relief of the Indian Ocean :

1. Continental Shelf
2. Mid-Oceanic Ridges
3. Ocean Basins
4. Oceanic Deeps
5. Islands

Continental Shelf:

• Continental Shelf is a portion of continents, submerged under oceanic water.
• It is normally occupied by gulfs, seas, bays, straits.
• A continental shelf may be extensive, narrow, wide.
• These shelfs are covered with deposits brought by agents of erosion.
• Some of the sedimentary deposits, remain deposited for a long time, which then forms sedimentary rocks.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges :

• They are submerged mountain ranges that separate deep portions of the sea (ocean) floor.
• The Indian Ocean consists of a Mid Oceanic ridge called as a Mid Indian Oceanic ridge.
• It originates from Gulf of Eden near the Peninsula of Somalia.
• It extends toward the south and at east side of Madagascar.
• This ridge gets divided into two branches :
• The branch diverts towards southwest and extends up to Prince Edward Island. It is known as  Southwest Indian Ocean ridge.
• The branch extends southeast up to Amsterdam and St. Paul Island.
• Mid Indian Oceanic ridge has many parallel ridges.
• This ridge does not flow continuously due to fracture zones such as Owen fracture zone, Amsterdam fracture zone, etc.
• Apart from Mid-Oceanic Ridges there is Kerguelen Plateau, in south side of Madagascar is Madagascar Plateau and in south side of Africa is Agulhas Plateau.

Indian Ocean Basins :

1. Oman
2. Somali
3. Mascarene
4. West Australian
5. Ganga
6. Arabian
7. Mauritius
8. Aguihas-Natal
9. Mid-Indian

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:
They are the deepest portions in the oceans.

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:

1. Jeva or Sunda Trench
   (7,450 m deep)
2. Ob Trench
   (6,875 m deep)

Islands:
land mass surrounded by ocean on all sides.

Distribution of temperature in the Indian Ocean :

• The study of temperature influences the biotic component in the oceans.
• Temperature is also largely responsible for the movement in the oceanic water.

Distribution of salinity in the Indian Ocean :

• Salinity influences the density of the ocean water.
• It cause the movements in the ocean water.

Temperature : of Indian Ocean water depends on the seasons

Pre-Monsoon Season:

• summer solstice
• Temperature increases especially in the southern portion closer to the equator.

South-We st Monsoon Season

• Temperature is lowered in the Arabian Sea because of monsoonal winds.

North-East

• Monsoon Season Winter solstice
• Temperature reduced
• Northern parts of Bay of Bengal record temperature of about 24°C.

Salinity: Salinity is the measure of amount of salts in the sea water. It is expressed as parts per thousand (%o). Average salinity of sea-water is 35%o.

• The salinity is generally high around the Somali Peninsula and closer to the Saudi Arabian Coast due to high temperature and low rainfall; there are very few rivers entering into the sea in this area.
• In the Bay of Bengal, huge discharges from the Ganga system and also from the Peninsular rivers leads to lowering of salinity in this area.
• Salinity is less in the rainy season.

Ocean Currents in the Indian Ocean :

• They are affected by Monsoon Wind System, especially in the northern Indian Ocean.
• They mix waters, transfer heat from one part of the ocean to the other.
• Indian ocean currents are affected by:
  • Shape of its coastline
  • Extent of coastline
  • Peculiar arrangement of the wind system in the region.

Indian Ocean Currents:

1. South Equatorial Current
2. The West Wind Drift

1. The West Wind Drift

• flows east to west, influenced by easterlies.
• circulation completed by Mozambique-Agulhas currents

2. South Equatorial Current:

• flows east to west, to east, influenced by westerlies
• circulation completed by West Australian Current.

→ In the northern portion of the Indian Ocean, seasonal monsoonal winds drive the currents.

→ These currents mostly follow along the coast lines.

→ During summer they follow in the clockwise direction and during the winter they flow in anticlockwise direction.

Importance of the Indian Ocean :

• The Indian Ocean region connects three continents namely Asia, Africa and Australia.
• It supports some of Asia’s biggest economies.
• It contains three busiest straits — Hormuz, Malacca and Bab-el-Mandeb.
• Majority of crude oil exported by Gulf countries passes through this route via Strait of Hormuz.
• The economy of island countries like Maldives and Seychelles located in the Indian Ocean depends upon the marine ecosystem and marine tourism in the Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean region has become important for countries that have military and naval bases, leading to tension in the region.
• Abyssal plains of the Indian Ocean are a source of nickel, copper, manganese, and cobalt.

Importance of the Indian Ocean for India :

• The Indian Ocean provides sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and America.
• It carries heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfield of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia.
• Large reserves of hydrocarbons tapped in the offshore areas.
• Beach sands, rich in heavy minerals and offshore deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India.
• The increasing trade relations with the countries of the East, India has higher stakes in the region in the future.
• The increasing trade has brought about threats of piracy, armed robbery, and maritime terrorism.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System

Nervous system:

• Nervous system is the complex network of neurons that carry signals from brain to body and body to brain.
• Our nervous system consists of two major parts, viz, Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• CNS consists of brain and spinal cord.
• PNS consists of somatic and autonomic nervous system.
• Somatic nervous system is further divided into sensory and motor system.
• Autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
• Neurons are the building blocks of nervous system.
• A neuron consists of dendrites, axon, cell body and terminal button or telodendria.
• Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers.
• Some important neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate and GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid).

Brain:

• The study of Psychology can’t be complete without studying the brain.
• Our brain helps to adapt to the environment and plays a crucial role in every aspect of life.
• The brain consists of three major parts, viz, hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
• Hindbrain consists of cerebellum, brain stem and reticular activation system.
• Midbrain consists of two parts, viz, superior and inferior colliculus,
• Forebrain consists of cerebrum. The outside cover of cerebrum is called as cerebral cortex.
• The surface of cerebral cortex is divided into two halves: right and left hemisphere.
• Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, viz, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.
• The limbic system is also an important part of the brain.
• The limbic system consists of hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• The various pillars of better brain functioning are physical and mental exercise, nutrition, tackling medical problems, sleep and relaxation, mental fitness as well as social interaction.

Spinal cord:

• The spinal cord extends from neck to waist.
• Its main function is to send information from brain to body and from to body to brain.
• It controls reflex actions like salivation, sneezing, knee jerk, blinking of eyes.
• It is connected to the periphery through 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is joined to spinal cord through two routes: dorsal and ventral route.

Glands:

• Glands are specialised groups of cells or organs that secrete chemical substances.
• There are many glands. All glands fall into two categories, viz, endocrine and exocrine.
• Exocrine glands are also called as duct glands. e.g. sweat gland, tear gland etc.
• Endocrine glands are called as ductless glands. e.g. pituitary gland, thyroid gland etc.
• Endocrine glands secrete vital chemical substances called hormones.
• Hormones have strong impact on human behaviour.
• Over (hyper) or under (hypo) secretion of hormones may lead to a variety of problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress

Being well adjusted: A dynamic balance:

• Richard Lazarus: Stress ¡s a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed the personal and social resources an individual is able to mobilize.
• Indian philosophy: Our desires and involvement in the material world are the cause of our stress which leads to Kiesha. There are five types of Kleshas.
• All of us experience stress at different points and everyone deals with it ¡n their own way.
• Moderate stress helps one to achieve optimum performance.

Types of stress and Gas:

• Hypo stress: It is caused when one has nothing to do at all. Due to hypo stress, an individual feels bored, demotivated, unenthusiastic, and restless.
• Hyper stress: It is caused due to extremely pressurizing conditions. Due to hyper stress, a person may panic and engage in exaggerated reactions, leading to frustration and agitation.
• Eustress: It is a positive form of stress. Eustress has a beneficial effect on health, motivation, performance and emotional well-being.
• Distress: It is a negative type of stress and is experienced when the normal routine of an individual is constantly altered and adjusted. Two types of distress are: Acute and Chronic distress.
• Acute distress is an intense, short-term negative stress while chronic distress is a long-lasting, recurrent negative distress.
• Hans Selye introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model in 1936.
• GAS showed the effects of stress on the human body.
• GAS model consists of three stages: Alarm stage, Resistance stage, and Exhaustion stage.

Stressors and conflict of motives:

• Stressors are environmental conditions, external stimuli, or events that cause stress.
• There are two types of stressors, viz, internal stressors and external stressors.
• Interna I stressors are stressors within us.
• External stressors are stressors resulting from the outside environment.
• Conflict of motives refers to the clash between two or more equally strong and incompatible motives occurring at the same time that compels an individual to make a choice.
• The types of conflict are Approach-Approach conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict, and Double Approach-Avoidance conflict.

Coping with stress: strategies:

• Everyone tries to deal with internal and external stressors and resolve conflicts.
• If one does not resolve the conflicts, it leads to stress.
• There are two broad strategies of coping with stress: Problem and emotions-focused coping.
• Problem-focused coping is known as a direct way of reducing stressors or resolving conflict.
• Problem-focused coping involves three strategies: Attack, Compromise, and Withdrawal.
• Emotion-focused coping involves reducing negative emotional responses associated with stress.
• According to Freud’s theory, our personality is controlled by ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Our reaction in a particular situation will depend upon the interaction of ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Defence mechanism is an indirect way to combat stress.
• Some popular defence mechanisms are repression, displacement, projection, sublimation, identification, daydreaming and rationalisation.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 3 Partition Values students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 1 Basic Concepts in Economics

→ Types Of Averages:

(1) Arithmetic Mean ( \(\bar{x}\) ):

• Individual Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum x}{n}\)
• Discrete Series / Data
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)
• Continuous Series / Data Direct Method
  \(\bar{x}=\frac{\sum f_{i} x_{i}}{n}\)

(2) Mode (Z):

• Individual Data
  Maximum Repeated value
• Discrete Series/ Data
  Maximum Frequency Value
• Continuous Series / Data
  \(\mathrm{Z}=l+\left[\frac{f_{1}-f_{0}}{2 f_{1}-f_{0}-f_{2}}\right] \times h\)

(3) Median (M) :

• Individual Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Discrete Series I Data
  M = Size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
• Continuous Series I Data
  M = \(l\left(\frac{\frac{n}{2}-c . f .}{f}\right) \times h\)

→ 29th June is celebrated as “Statistics Day” in India to recognise the contributions of noted Indian
Statistician. Prof. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.

→ Partition Values : Values which divide the data into required number of equal parts are called partition value or fractiles.

→ Partition Values:

• Percentiles
• Quartiles
• Median
• Deciles

→ Application Of Partition Value:

1. Quartiles
2. Deciles
3. Percentiles

Quartiles:

• Used in study of Financial Information
• E.g.
  • Economic Data
  • Income Data
  • Stock Data
  • Sales
  • Survey Data, etc

Deciles:
Used in Finance and Economics
Used to Study:

• Level of economic
• Inequality
• Measurement of poverty line
• Drought cohdition, etc.

Percentiles:
Used in Measurement of test scores, health indication, household income, household wealth, etc.

→ Quartiles : Quartiles are the values (data) which divide the series (distribution) into four equal parts. They are the 3 values that divide the distribution into 4 parts, each representing one quarters of the score. These 3 values are called as first quartile (Q₁), second quartile (Q₂) and third quartile (Q₃). Second quartile is nothing but the median.

→ Quartiles

Q₁ Individual Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):

Step:

1. Q₁ = size of \(\left(\frac{n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₁ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

Q₂ Median Individual Data:
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
= size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data :
Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{n+1}{2}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₂ = size of \(\left(\frac{2n}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)
2. Q₂ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{2 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h
   [Note : Q₂ = D₅ = P₅₀ Median]

Q₃ Individual Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Discrete Data:
Q₃ = size of 3\(\left(\frac{n+1}{4}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\)

Continuous Data (Grouped Data):
Step:

1. Q₃ = size of \(\left(\frac{3 n}{4}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\)
2. Q₃ = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{3 n}{4}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h

→ Deciles : They are the values of data which divide the whole set of observations into 10 equal parts. There are 9 points i.e. , D₁, D₂ to D₉ which divide the data into 10 equal parts. While calculating Deciles, data has to be arranged in ascending or descending order.

• Individual Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=j\left(\frac{n+1}{10}\right)^{\text {th } \text { Observation }}\) [where j = 1,2, ……..9]
• Continuous Data : \(\mathrm{D}_{j}=l+\left(\frac{\frac{j n}{10}-c f}{f}\right) \times h\) [where j = 1,2, ………….9]

→ Percentiles : It divides the whole set of observations into 100 equal parts. There are 99 percentile.
They are denoted by P₁, P₂ to P₃ ………….. P₉₉ The 50th percentile is called as Median.

(i) Individual Data and Discrete Data : P_k = size of k \(\left(\frac{n+1}{100}\right)^{\text {th observation }}\) [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]
(ii) Continuous Data : P_k = l + \(\left(\frac{\frac{k n}{100}-c f}{f}\right)\) x h [Where k = 1, 2, ……………99]

Word Meaning:

procedure – steps; arithmetic – study of numbers; mean – average; median – middle; quartiles – divided into four equal groups; deciles – divided into 10 equal groups; percentiles – divided into 100 equal groups; descriptive – to describe; poverty – poor; acquainted – to get to known; statistical – use of statistics; magnitude – in great extent; misinterprets – misunderstand; survey – observe; fluctuations – changes; inflation – increase in price; povertyline – minimum required income to get basic needs of life; drought – no rainfall in an area; portfolio investments – range of investments; bench marking – measuring the performance; baseline – minimum way tci compare; observations – the data in numbers; frequency distribution – mathematical function; symbolically – representating in terms; cumulative – increased in quantity by adding one after other continuously.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India

→ Unemployment: It is a situation in which people in the age group of 15 to 59 years though able and willing to work at the available wage rate but unable to get a job.

→ As per N.S.S.O:
As Per National Sample Survey Organisation (N.S.S.O.)

1. Unemployed
2. Underemployed
3. Employed

Unemployed:
One who work for less than 14 hours per week

Underemployed:
One who work for 15-28 hours a week

Employed:
One who work for 8 hours per day or 273 days in a year

→ Concept of Unemployment:

Involuntary Unemployment:
Situation where people willing to work – but no work is available.

Voluntary Unemployment:
Situation where a person is fit and able to work but not willing to work.

Underemployment:
Situation where a person’s capacity to work is under utilised.

Full Employment:
Situation where all available resources used fully in most efficient manner.

→ Causes of Unemployment

1. Jobless growth
2. Increase in labour force
3. Migration of rural population
4. Excessive use of machinery
5. Lack of skill development programmes
6. Slow rate of economic development
7. Seasonal nature of agriculture
8. Expectations towards employment

→ Types of Unemployment:

→ Effects of Unemployment:

Economic Effects:

• Waste of human resources
• Difficult to implement welfare schemes
• Poverty and income inequality
• Growth of informal sector
• High dependency ratio

Social Effects:

• Social tension and unrest
• Loss of human dignity
• Helplessness

→ Measures to Reduce Unemployment:
General Measures:

• Development of agricultural sector
• Provision for alternative occupation
• Development of infrastructure
• Reforms in the educational system
• Development of Tourism
• Use of labour-intensive techniques
•  Development of Information technology and communication
• Provision for vocational training and skill development facilities
• Rural industrialization
• Motivation for self employment

Specific Measures:

• Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS)
• Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
• Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
• Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
• ‘Training Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM)
• ‘Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
• ‘Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
• ‘Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana 2014
• ‘National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship -2015
• Start up India Initiative
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana-(2016-20)

Word Meaning:

unemployment – state of being not working; mass- large number; gambling – playing games with intention to earn money; anti-social – against law and custom of the society; prevailing – at a particular time; hypothetical – unreal; slack season – lack of work; disguised – invisible; surplus – excess; over crowding – presence of more people in a given space; white collar jobs – administrative jobs; adaptability – adjust to new condition; capital intensive – large amount of money to run business; computerisation – doing activities/work through computer; depression- decline/slowdown; drastic – major; mismatch – differences; unprecedented – not known; abundant – available in large quantity; vocational – education relating to an occupation; compatible – suitable; aspire – aim for; dependency – seeking support / depend on; mission – target/aim, viable – achievable, advocacy – policy, aspiration – goal, cyclical – occuring in cycle.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India

Important Kingdoms in South India Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties:
Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were the ancient ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms in the South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ ‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one of the main sources of history of South Indian rulers.

Chola Dynasty: The Chola Kingdom was established in first-century C.E. Chola dynasty originated in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu) This province was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had established their rule from Pudukkottai to Kanyakumari.

Vakataka Dynasty: The power of Satavahanas started growing weaker from the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took. advantage of this situation and established independent rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti, King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in the North and from Gujarat to South upto Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). Kolhapur was known as ‘Kuntala’ at that time. Pravarasena I performed four Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title ‘Samrat’.

Chalukyas: During the rule of Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya dynasty ruled in the south for. approximately 200 years. Jaising was the founder of this dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E. he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami). His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first important king of the Chalukyas.

He built the fort of Badami. He performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’.

Pallavas: Around 6th century C.E. to 9th century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the most powerful rulers in South India. Historians vary in their views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the Pallavas are found. There is a mention of Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas.

We get a detailed information of the Pallava dynasty beginning from the reign of Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting etc.

Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga was the first powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in North India as well.

Shilaharas: There were three branches of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan, north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar-Ter, Osmanabad district). Jimutvahan is considered as the founder of all the three branches. They ruled for almost three hundred years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and later the Chalukyas.

Shilaharas of South Konkan:
‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar set up the village of Vallipattana and built a fort there. Later King Adityavarma expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa. Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty. The history of this dynasty is known with the help of one of the copper plates found at Kharepatan.

Shilaharas of North Konkan:
Kapardi established the north Kokan branch of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane).

Aparajita was another important king of this branch. He ruled for around thirty-five years. Chittaranjan followed Aparajita asking. His brothers fought for their claim to the throne.

Shilaharas of Kolhapur:
The modern districts of Satara, Sangli, Ratnagiri, and Belgaum were included in this kingdom. Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur, Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur are credited with the creation of the magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple at Khidrapur.

Gonds: The Gond dynasty was established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the founder of this dynasty. He brought the people of Gond tribe together and encouraged them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He established the capital at Sirpur.

In the later period, Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was constructed during his period.

Yadavas: Yadava dynasty is one of the important dynasties of medieval Maharashtra. Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded the kingdom by defeating the v Kalachuris. He established his capital at Devgiri and got himself coronated.

In the later period, Singhan was an important ruler of this dynasty. He defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and expanded the rule of Yadavas.

Administrative system, trade, social life:
In the administrative systems of South Indian dynasties, there were officials such as ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’, ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc. The council of officers in the Chola kingdom was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was divided into many provinces.

These provinces were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of the royal family was the chief of the Mandalam. There were many officers under him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’, ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The administration of the Southern kingdoms was very efficient.

Literature, art, architecture:
The ‘Sangham literature’ is supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil tradition. This literature is one of the main sources of political history of South India. It is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council) were held. This period was important from the point of view of Sanskrit literature.

Kalidasa composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule, compositions in Prakrit language were created. Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’. ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena, the founder of Vatsagulm branch of Vakatakas.

Two styles of architecture are seen in South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture. The Dravida style of architecture emerged and developed in the regions from Krishna river to Kanyakumari. The important feature of Dravida architecture identified by construction of Shikhara. In this type the storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises. Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore are some of the excellent examples of Dravida style of architecture.

Glossary:

→ Reign – To rule a country.

→ Expedition – A journey undertaken for a specific purpose.

→ Province – An administrative division or unit of a country.

→ Feudatories – Persons who hold lands by feudal tenure.

→ Prevalent – Common.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 10 Changing Times students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 10 Changing Times

Nomadic tribes of Central Asia:
After the death of Alexander, the Satrapas appointed by him declared their independent status and they came to be known as Indo-Greek kings. During the declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in this period. These migrations proved to be important in the political scene in North India.

In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E., the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas (Scythians) attacked northwestern regions. The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were pastoralists. With the strength of their war skills, they vanquished the local kings and there they established their own kingdoms.

Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas:
Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In Indian tradition, they are mentioned as Yavana. Their objectives were to establish their dominance in the region of Mediterranean Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in west and central Asia.

Seleucus Nicator was Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria in the North-west. In the conflicts between the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria proved to be powerful. Bactrian king, Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He won over Takshashila. His capital was at Sakai (Siyalkot).

Shakas: Shakas came from Central Asia. They established their kingdom by driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’ (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first Shaka king in India. He established the kingdom by conquering the provinces of Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava King, Gondophernes defeated them and established his rule in India.

Kushanas: After coming to Bactria from Central Asia, the Kushanas captured the Indo-Greek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact with the Greek is reflected in some traits of Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out to the South, under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together and Kujula Kadphises brought them to northwest India from the Hindukush mountains. He declared himself as the King of Bactria.

Kushana Empire: After winning over the small kingdoms, Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and established their Satrapis there. A military officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was appointed on the satrapies. The King was the chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The concept of divinity of the King is seen for the first time in the inscriptions on the Kushana coins. They called themselves as ‘Devputra’(Son of God).

Gupta Empire: The history of Gupta empire indicates the process of transformation of a small state into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’ indicates that he was a feudatory. His son Ghatotkach also uses the same title which means during his period also the Gupta kings were feudatories.

Chandragupta I is given the credit of expanding the Gupta rule and transforming it into an empire. The title added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’, gives an idea of the increasing status of the Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This matrimonial alliance proved to be politically beneficial for the Gupta dynasty.

State administration and social life: The Gupta period is considered as the Classical Age of Indian history. During the Gupta period, king was the centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya (ministers) and advisors helped him. Many times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy who looked after the provincial administration. Every province was subdivided. These subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’.

There was an independent administrator appointed on these Vishayas. They were known as ‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the provincial officers and Ayuktak’ were the officials who looked after the affairs of the districts. Gupta administration was decentralized. Many decisions were taken at the local level.

Vardhan Empire: During the declining period of the Guptas, in Northern India, there was rise of dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar (Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna Doab, Maitrakas in Saurashtra etc. Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan dynasty. After the accession of Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty became powerful. He took up the sovereign title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’. The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhan.

His empire extended from Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to the throne under the situation. The empire disintegrated and many feudatories declared independent status in North India.

Karkotaka Empire: Among the dynasties that ruled in Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had been to Kashmir when he had visited India. Detailed information regarding this dynasty is found in Kalhan’s Rajatarangini. Durlabhavardhan was the founder of Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended from Narmada to Tibet.

The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed, 724-760 C.E.), the grandson of Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya). He drove away many foreign tribes on the northern borders of Kashmir, especially the region in the Amudarya basin.

Trade, coinage, art, iconography: In Indian history, the period of six centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th century C.E. was the period of arrival of the Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that they established. These people adopted various cultural traits as they came to India.

The introduction of these traits brought about a transformation in the cultural life of India as well. In contemporary India, agriculture and animal husbandry were the main sources of livelihood. Along with it, various industries and trade developed during this period. India’s contact with the foreigners proved to be beneficial for this.

Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres in Maharashtra): The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in Greek language in the mid 1st century C.E., mentions about the Red Sea and the sea routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces, goods exchanged in trade.

Red Sea was important for trade relations between India and Rome. The flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to several markets and cities. There was rise of important ports in western India as well. The merchandise transported to Maharashtra were stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur, and Sannati.

Glossary:

→ Tilling – Prepare and cultivate(land) for crops.

→ Merchandise – Goods that are for sale.

→ Garom – Pickled fish.

→ Migration – Movement of people from one place to another.

→ Dominance – The action of taking control.

→ Suzerainty – The right of a region to partly control another.

→ Autonomy – A right to governor control.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Rural Development in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Rural Development in India

→ Meaning Of Rural Development:

• Leads to economic growth of a country.
• It is a ‘subset’ of term “development”.
• Relates to overall development and improvement in quality of life
• It should be sustainable, in order to remove poverty from any country.

→ Definition of Rural Development:

World Bank defines :
“Rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people – the rural poor. Rural development involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those, who seek livelihood in the rural areas. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless’’.

→ Features of Rural Development:

(A) Agriculture:

• Mecha nisation
• High Yielding Seeds
• Credit and Transport
• Marketing

(B) Village Industries:

• Modernization
• Technica’ training
• Marketing

(C) Education

• Technical
• Skill
• Agricultural

(D) Services

• Health
• Family Welfare
• Banking
• Communication

→ Rural Occupational Structure:

(A) Agricultural Sector
(B) Indrustrial Sector
(C) Services Sector (Tertiary Sector)

(A) Agricultural Sector

1. Agriculture
2. Allied Activities

1. Agriculture

• Small farmers
• Marginal farmers
• Large farmers

Allied Activities:
Plantation, forestry, fisheries, dairy, horticulture

(B) Indrustrial Sector:

• Small scale Industries
• Cottage Industries
• Rural Industries

(C) Services Sector (Tertiary Sector):

1. Traders
2. Transport
3. Proffessional and Technicians

Traders:

• Wholesaler
• Retailer

→ Classification or Types of Agricultural Credit:

→ Sources of Agricultural Credit:

(A) Non-Institutional Sources
(B) Institutional Sources

(A) NON-INSTITUTIONAL Sources

1. Money-Lenders
2. Other Private Sources
   • Other Private Sources:
   • Traders, landlords, commission agents, etc.
   • Loan from relatives, friends, etc.

(B) Institutional Sources:

1. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
2. Rural Co-operative Credit Institutions
3. Commercial Banks (CB’s)
4. Regional Rural Banks (RRB’s)
5. Micro Finance Institutions (MFI’s)

Rural Co-operative Credit Institutions

• Short-term Credit Co-operatives
• Long-term Credit Co-operatives

Short-term Credit Co-operatives:

• Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)
• District Central Co-operative Banks (ÐCCB)
• State Co-operative Banks (SCB)

Long-term Credit Co-operatives:

• Primary Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks.
• State Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks.

→ Significance or Importance of Rural Development in India :

• Public health and sanitation
• Literacy rate
• Empowerment of women
• Enforcement of law and order
• Land reforms
• Infrastructure development
• Availability of credit
• Eradication of poverty

Word Meaning:

predominantly – mainly, rural – village area, subset – part of a larger group, connotes – suggest, consensus – general opinion, alleviate – to reduce, strategy – planning, tenants – a person who occupies land or property on rental basis, marginal – very small, cottage – industry carried out in people’s home, witnessed – to see, affordable – reasonable price, instrument – a tool, gender disparity – not having equal rights for male and female, safeguard – protect, enforcement – carrying out, ceiling – limitation, connectivity – to link, eradication – to remove, pre-requisite – requirement, inadequate – not sufficient, tenure – time period, unproductive – not able to use in productive activity, collateral security – asset kept against loan, prevalent – spread, mortgage – to keep asset against the loan, promotion – to support, consequent – as follows, inflexibility – not able to change, legitimate – allowed by law.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period

Vedic Culture:
Vedic literature, Linguistics and Archaeology:
Most of the information about their culture is derived from the Vedic literature. This literature is fundamentally in the form of the faith systems of the Vedic tribes and eulogies of their deities. There are various opinions about the chronology of the Vedic culture. However, there is a general agreement that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on the basis of astronomical events.

This debate began in the 16th century. Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not known. In the 16th century, the European academics became aware of the similarities between Sanskrit and Latin- Greek languages. It resulted into the notion of the ‘Indo-European’ language family.

Vedic Literature and Social organisation of Vedic Times:
The Vedic literature is supposed to be the earliest literature of India. They were written in Sanskrit. The four Vedas form the core of the Vedic literature.

Rigveda: The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns) composed to eulogise the deities. The verses in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta (hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala.

Yajurveda: The Yajurveda offers explanation of the sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a combined composition of the Rigvedic richa in verse and the explanation of its use v as a mantra in prose.

Samaveda: The Samaveda is a text that gives the rules of reciting mantras in a musical form. The Samaveda is regarded as the text that is fundamental in the development of Indian music.

Atharvaveda: The Atharvaveda is about the day-to-day life. It contains information about charms and medicines for various problems and diseases. It also talks about the norms of statesmanship.

Varna System:
The Vedic society was organized into four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely, Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The varna system is first mentioned in the tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In the later Vedic period, the varna system lost its flexibility. Also, the caste system got rooted firmly by this period.

In the beginning, the varna or the caste was decided by one’s occupation. Later it came to be determined on the basis of birth. Hence it became impossible to change one’s varna and caste, in which he/she was born.

Ashrama System:
The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture lays down the norms of living an ideal life by dividing the span of human life into four successive stages, namely Brahmacharyashram, Grihasthashram, Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram.

• In the first stage one was expected to spend an austere life and earn knowledge and necessary occupational skills.
• In the second stage one was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties with one’s wife by his side.
• In the third stage one was expected to retire from the active life of the householder and if the need be, to give advice to the younger people. It was also desirable that one should stay away from human settlement.
• In the fourth and the last stage one was expected to renounce all the family bonds, accept a wandering life and to go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to settle at one place for a longer time.

The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded through Vedic Literature:
The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu region have been mentioned in the Rigveda. Among them occur the names like Puru, Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc. They were the tribes who subsisted on agriculture.

The Rigveda mentions a battle known as ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region, who did not belong to the Rigvedic people. They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’. Panis were looked upon as enemies by the Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle of the Vedic people.

Later Vedic Period:
Later Vedic Period is dated to around 1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this period is gathered from the treatises written in that period. The material culture as reflected in the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata was studied with the help of archaeological evidence.

A picture of the migration in the Later Vedic period can be gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward the east and its geographic markers from the literature of that period. The Later Vedic period saw a gradual formation of confederacies of the Vedic villages. They were known as ‘Janapada’. Generally, the seniors and the elites in a Janapada collectively took social decisions.

Glossary:

→ Philology – A discipline that traces the etymological history and meanings of words.

→ Etymology – The study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history.

→ Dasyu – It is derived from the Sanskrit word “Dasa”. Usually means enemy or servant.

→ Suktas – Hymns.

→ Eulogise – Praise highly in speech or writing.

→ Oligarchy – A small group of people having control of a country or organization.