Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Concept of Representation

Introduction:
In this chapter, we will study the meaning and methods of Representation. We will examine the evolution of Representative Assemblies in England an in India. Next, we will examine channels of representation such as political parties, pressure groups and NGO’s.

Representation:
Meaning: The concept of representation is important in any democracy. In ancient Greek and Roman city-states, there existed directed democracy. City-states such as Athens were of limited geographical area and had a small population. Hence, people there governed themselves. All persons (adult males) who had the right to conduct the affairs of the city-state participated in its decision making.

Today, most countries have large territory and population. Hence, direct democracy is not possible. The form of democracy today is indirect democracy or representative democracy. People elect representatives from among themselves to govern the country for e.g., in India, Members of Parliament (MP’s), Members of State Legislative Assemblies/ Councils (MLA’s, MLC’s), of corporations, etc., are all our representatives.

History Of Representative Democracy:
Representative democracy has its origins in medieval Europe. Till that time, Absolute Monarchies existed in most countries. The Divine Rights of Kings Theory was in application. As time went by, Monarchs in many countries like England started having ‘Representative Assemblies’ which represented the population. Soon, these assemblies asked for a share in the decision-making process of the country leading to conflicts between the monarchs and the assemblies for e.g., during the French Revolution.

Most conflicts ended with reduced power to the monarchs. The ‘Representative Assemblies’, now become ‘Political Representatives’ as they dealt with all government activities. Abraham Lincoln’s definition of a democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people’ aptly sums up the concept of political representation.

After the uprising of 1857, the Queen’s Proclamation (1858) and subsequent Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909) had a few Indians appointed to the National and Provincial Councils. The 1935, Government of India Act, provided for Provincial Assemblies, consisting of elected members in India.

Methods Of Representation:
Methods of representation refer to methods adopted to choose persons in charge of governance.
These include.

• Electoral Method – Persons are directly or indirectly elected by the citizens to govern them as members of representative assemblies e.g., General elections to Lok Sabha.
• Non-electoral Method – Representatives occupy their position though nomination or appointment for e.g., President of India appoints 12 Members to the Rajya Sabha.
• Non-official Method – Civil society represents the people through various pressure groups like trade unions, student groups, etc.

Constituencies And Electoral Systems:
Generally, elections to representative assemblies take place on a geographical basis. The territory is divided into distinct areas (based on population) called constituencies. Citizens living in each constituency have the right to elect their representatives for e.g., Maharashtra has 48 Lok Sabha constituencies and Mumbai city alone has 6 constituencies.

Electoral systems may be classified based on –
(i) How many members need to be elected per constituency?

• Single Member Constituency – only one member is elected
• Multi-Member Constituency – several members can be elected from each constituency.

(ii) How many votes are required to get elected from the constituency?

• Plurality System – The candidate who receives the maximum number of votes is declared as elected for e.g., in the Lok Sabha elections. This is also called First Past the Post system. It is employed in single-member constituencies.
• Majority System – It is necessary to secure a majority of votes (50% or more generally) to be declared as elected for e.g., in Presidential elections in India
• Proportional System – is generally used in multi-member constituencies. The number of candidates of a given political party to be elected depends upon the proportion of votes that the party receives. The types of Proportional Representation include Single Transferable Vote System (used in Legislative Council and Rajya Sabha elections) list system, etc.

Political Parties:
Meaning: Political parties are the most important channels for political representation. They are organized groups, comprising of persons who hold similar views on a variety of issues or have similar objectives. They seek to obtain political power, generally, through the process of elections.

The views of a party taken together are called the party’s ideology. Most parties have a hierarchical organization. At election times, political parties issue ‘Manifestos’ i.e., what policies/programmes they would implement if voted to power. Every party puts up its candidates who contest elections.

Origin Of Political Parties:
Political parties emerged a little after representative assemblies. Members within these assemblies, who held similar views, soon began gathering together to influence policies as they desired. The need for organized groups was felt in representative assemblies to ensure that they commanded a majority to head the government. This was noticed in United Kingdom in the 18th century.

In India, Indian National Congress (INC) was the first political party. It was established in 1885. During the freedom struggle many parties like Muslim League, Communist Party, Hindu Mahasabha, etc. were formed. Many parties were also formed after Independence. Some of these are regional parties like TDP, Shiv Sena, others were formed when they broke away from the main party for e.g., NCP, TMC broke a way from INC while other parties were formed to represent a specific ideology e.g., BJP, Akali Dal, AIMIM or toward specific issues e.g., TRS (Telangana).

Classification Of Political Parties:
In India, political parties are classified as ‘National’ or ‘State’ parties. The Election Commission has set up certain criteria. For a political party be eligible to be recognised as a National party.

• It secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly.
• In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People (Lok Sabha) from any State or States. OR
• It wins at least two percent (2%) seats in the House of People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different States.

At present there are seven National parties i.e. Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Communist Party of India (CPI), Communist Party of India Marxist (CPM), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) and All India Trinamool Congress (TMC).

State-level parties are also called Regional parties since their presence is restricted to one or more states for e.g., Dravida Munnetra Kazhagan (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam AIADMK (Tamil Nadu) or TDP (Andhra Pradesh).

Levels Of Representation And Decision Making:
In India, which is a federation, decision making occurs at both the national and state levels. It also takes place at the local level i.e., in local self-government. Political parties serve as channels of representation at all three levels.

Interest Groups And Pressure Groups:
Interest groups and pressure groups are informal channels that seek to represent the people. A pressure group is an interest group that is organized to influence public opinion and government policy towards the fulfilment of it’s objectives and without active participation in the electoral process.

This includes interest groups in the fields of business such as Federation of India Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI); for labour e.g., Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), Bharatiya Kamgar Sena (BKS), for peasants e.g., Shetkari Sanghatana; for students e.g., Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), National Students Union of India (NSUI). In the USA, pressure groups are also called Lobby Groups.

Non-Government Organization (NGO’s):
Non-Governmental Organizations are another mechanism for representation. They seek to represent and to aid sections of society where the government agencies have been negligent or unsuccessful. Most NGO’s represent a cause and have people with specialized knowledge or strong convictions associated with it. In India, there are numerous NGO’s working for social causes such as for the environment or for underprivileged sections of society such as children, the disabled, women, etc.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Social Institutions

→ Social institutions refer to a system of well-defined, stable patterns of behaviour. It depends upon the collective activities of people. Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of individuals.

→ The Functionalist perspective looks at social institutions as playing a number of specific roles in
facilitating human social life.

→ The Marxist or Conflict perspective holds that all individuals are not placed equally in society.

→ The society comprises various social institutions like family, marriage, education, religion, economy, etc.

→ Family is the most important primary unit of human society. A family is a group of people related by blood.

Functions of Family :

• Socialization
• Regulation of sexual activity
• Emotional security
• Economic stability
• Social Identity

Forms of Family:

Structure
Authority

1. Structure:

• joint family
• Nuclear vamily

2. Authority

• Matriarcha1 family
• Patriarchal family

Twenty first century families:
Family as an institution is significantly changing and many new forms are in the making.

• Single parent fami’y
• Cohabitation
• Step-parenting

Marriage:

• Marriage is a social institution through which family relations are formed. It refers, to a pattern sanctioned by society to enter into sex relations and to procreate.
• Today the concept of marriage is enlarged to include homosexual relations.
• In 1989, Denmark became the first country to formally recognize homosexual marriages.

Forms of Marriage –
Forms of Marriage is Bases on:

1. Number of Partners
2. Rules Governing
3. Social Status

1. Number of Partners:

• Monogamy
• polygamy
  • polyandry
  • Polygyny

2. Rules Governing:

• Endogamy
• Exogamy

3. Social Status

• Hypergamy
• Hypogamy

Family, Kinship and Marriage:

• A family is a group of persons directly linked by kin relations.
• Kinship ties are connections between individuals, established either through marriage or through the lines of descent that connect blood relatives.

Economy and Work :

• Economy is a basis social institution which organises production distribution and consumption of goods and services.
• Every society has to fulfil material needs in order to maintain itself.
• Human society has evolved through various stages, depending upon the way it evolved mechanisms to adapt to changing material needs.

Three Broad Stages of Transformation of Economy:

1. Agricultural Revolution
2. Industrial Revolution
3. Information Revolution

Changing Nature of Work :

• With advanced industrialization, the proportion of population engaged in agriculture is declining.
• There is also an expansion of service sector in India. One of the main features of modern societies is an enormous expansion of economic interdependence.
• Growing competition between firms and countries make it essential to keep production flexible.

Education :
Modern societies have evolved a distinct institution of education to fulfill basic goals like disseminate ideas and knowledge and to develop skills to use existing knowledge for the betterment of society.

Types of Education:

1. Formal Education
2. Informal Education
3. Non-formal Education

Importance of Education:

• Children learn self-discipline
• Instill values of individual achievement
• Gain an understanding of common values and moral beliefs
• Teaches specialised skills needed for a complex modern society

Education and Social Division :
Scholars like Bowles and Gintis argue that workplace inequalities are mirrored in the organization of schools and that the education system reproduces these inequalities. Many studies have pointed out that education as a system also perpetrates gender differences.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Basic Concepts in Sociology

→ Sociology studies every social phenomenon Therefore, sociology is a complex social science.

→ The concepts of sociology are difficult to understand as they are abstract in nature.

Basic Concepts in Sociology:

1. Society
2. Social Role
3. Community
4. Social Norms
5. Social Group
6. Social Status

→ According to Aristotle, ‘man is a social animal’ and cannot live without society.

→ Man is subjected to some elemental and derived needs that can be satisfied within the societal framework.

→ The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companionship or friendship.

→ ‘Society’ is a broad concept and is used frequently or in day-to-day life.

→ Society denotes an ‘ association’, ‘organization’ or ‘group’.

Characteristics of Society:

• Likeness
• Difference
• Interdependence
• Co-operation
• Normative Nature
• Dynamic

→ Maclver and Page stated that the community possesses a distinctively territorial character. It implies a common soil as well as shared way of life.

→ Community is referred to a group of people living in a definite territory to fulfil their common objectives and needs.

Community includes

• Sense of ‘we-feeling
• Common interdependent life
• Common interests
• Common area

Elements of Community:

1. Locality
2. Community Sentiment

→ The term social group is used to refer to the entire human group as well as it means a small group which consists of two individuals.

→ Human beings are social animals and hence have always lived in social groups.

Social group indicates:

1. Common characteristics
2. Number of people with same goals and expectations
3. Regular social interaction

Characteristics of Social Group:

1. Consists of two or more persons
2. Social interaction is essential
3. Mutual awareness
4. ‘We feeling’ among group
5. Purpose to fulfil certain common interest
6. Has its own norms and rules
7. Dynamic in nature

→ Through various classifications of groups given by sociologists one can understand the diverse nature of social groups.

Types of Social Group:

1. In Group and Out Group
2. Voluntary and Involuntary Group
3. Small and Large Group
4. Primary and Secondary Group

Characteristics of Primary Group:

• Physical Proximity
• Small group
• Relationship is an end in itself
• Permanent relationship
• Informal control
• Face-to- face relationship
• Similar objectives and goals

Characteristics of Secondary Group:

• Large size
• Indirect relations
• Impersonal relations
• Deliberate establishment
• Formal relations

→ The concept of Reference Group is given by Robert Merton.

→ People refer to reference group when evaluating:

• Qualities
• Circumstances
• attitude
• values
• behaviours

Reference Group:

• Informal Group: Family, peer group, etc.
• Formal Group: Labour Unions, Supreme court, etc.

→ Social status, social role and social norms are correlated concepts of every society.

→ Every individual has a certain status and performs their role according to the status (position) in society.

→ There are certain rules and regulations to control societal behaviour, which are known as social norms.

Social Status- One’s position or status according to prestige and power.

Types of Status:

1. Ascribed Status: Age, sex, kinship, race, etc.
2. Achieved Status: Politics, sports, skill, education, etc.

Social Role: One’s behavioural aspects of duties associated with status or position.

Role:

• Role performance
• Role exit
• Role conflict
• Role strain
• Role set

Status and role are complementary to each other. They are two sides of the same coin.

Social Norms – Norms make orders and severs individual as a guide for conduct.

Types of Norms:

1. Folkways
2. Mores
3. Law
   • Customary Law
   • Enacted Law

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 9 Post Mauryan India

Shunga Empire:
The Shunga empire was spread from Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in the west, as well as Himalayas in the North to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra was the main capital, Pushyamitra established a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He strengthened his rule in the provinces of Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc.

Later he conquered the lost provinces of Magadhan empire up to Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory over Demetrius is mentioned in ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by Kalidasa.

Rise of Satavahana Empire:
After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty established itself in the north whereas in the south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power. The Mauryan empire created a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra.

Initially, the Satavahana rule came to a rise in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later spread in the vast region of Maharashtra, Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in Maharashtra, was the capital of the Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the ‘Andhras’ or Andhrabhrutyas’. According to some scholars, these terms refer to Satavahanas.

Administrative system, literature, art and social life:
Administrative System: The state under the Satavahanas was divided into small provinces and on every province civil and military officials were appointed to administer individual provinces over it. These included civil officials, such as ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahabhoj’ and military officials, such as ‘Mahasenapati’ and ‘Maharathi’. Grama (village) was the smallest unit of administration.

Grama was a source of revenue and also for the recruitment of soldiers during war-like situations. Thus, Grama was an integral part of the central machinery.

Agriculture was the main source of means of subsistence. Along with it many industries and trade flourished under the Satavahanas. Various shrenis (Guilds) also emerged during this period. The trade and industries were controlled with the help of these shrenis. The shrenis also provided loans. Indo-Roman trade also flourished during the Satavahana period. Trade centres like Pratishthan (Paithan), Tagar (Ter), Nasik (Nashik), Karhatak (Karhad) developed during the Satavahana rule.

Literature: During the Satavahana period, learning and art received royal patronage. Prakrit language and literature flourished during Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty, compiled ‘Gathasaptashati’. Gunadhya, a minister in his court, wrote an incomparable text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a Prakrit language called Paishachi. Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on Sanskrit Grammer, named ‘Katantra’.

Art and Architecture: The influence of Persian and Greek sculptural styles during the Mauryan period seems to have decreased during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A new native Indian style emerged in this period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the Sanchi Stupa No. 1 built during this period are excellent examples of this style.

Society: The society of Satavahana period was organised into four varnas. Similarly, during this period, system also became deeply rooted. The intermixture of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed nature of different guilds, need of including foreigners in the social structure were some of the reasons behind it. Apart from that, there were four classes in the society.

The first class consisted of officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’ and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on the various ‘Rashtrakas’ (Subhas). ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan province and Maharathi on the plateau area.

The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’ (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan merchant). The third social class consisted of ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade guilds), ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’ (physicians), ‘Halakiya’ (cultivators), ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders of perfumes).

Glossary:

→ Repelled – To send something back or to push somebody back.

→ Disintegration – The process of losing strength.

→ Hoard – A large quantity.

→ Inscriptions – Words that are written or cut on something.

→ Contemporary – Of the present time.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 2 Weathering and Mass Wasting

→ Types of Rocks:

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic

• Igneous : These rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of molten magma.
• Sedimentary : These rocks are formed due to the deposition of layers of organic and inorganic matter including dead remains of plants and animals and sand, silt, clay, gravel, etc.
  Hardening and compaction.
• Metamorphic : These rocks are formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to immense heat and pressure.

→ Weathering:
Weathering is a process of breaking down of rocks due to physical or chemical changes in the rocks.

→ Types of Weathering:

1. Physical / Mechanical:

• Freeze and thaw
• Granular weathering
• Shattering
• Block disintegration
• Exfoliation

2. Chemical:

• Oxidation
• Carbonation
• Crystallization

3. Biological:

• Floral weathering
• Faunal weathering
• Anthropogenic weathering

→ Factors such as water, heat and pressure can cause both physical and chemical weathering.

→ Freeze and thaw weathering: It are particularly effective in high and mid latitudes and in mountainous areas. Where the diurnal range of temperature is high, water inside the crack’s freezes during night time and melts during day time. When water freezes its volume increases and it exerts pressure on walls of rocks and the cracks widen and eventually the rock breaks.

→ Granular disintegration due to temperature change: The coarse-grained rocks are affected in desert areas. These granules are of different colours and they absorb insolation differently. Differential expansion and contraction cause stress on rocks and eventually it disintegrates into smaller particles.

→ Shattering due to rain shower and heat: The outer shells of the rocks are shattered due to sudden light showers in hot climatic region mainly hot deserts.

→ Block disintegration due to heat: In rocks such as granite which have joints, heat can cause weathering by breaking the rocks along the joints into blocks.

→ Exfoliation: The exposed part of the rock heats more, while the inner part is comparatively cooler. As a result, the outer layers of the rocks fall apart from the main rock.

→ Oxidation: Oxygen in the air and water reacts with certain elements in the minerals inside the rock. In this process the minerals in the rocks react with oxygen in the air and water.

→ Carbonation: It involves reaction of carbon dioxide with minerals in the soil. The decomposition of dead matter produces C02 which reacts with minerals.

→ Crystallization: The salts of calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium etc., present in the rocks have a tendency to expand due to their thermal properties. This leads to crystallization of salts and individual grains split from the main rocks which fall off at the end. It is dominant in coastal areas with alternate dry and wet periods.

→ Biological Weathering : This is caused because of roots of plants, which penetrates into cracks. Microorganism such as algae, moss, lichens and bacteria grow on the rock surface and produce chemicals that can break the rock.

→ Certain burrowing animals like rats, moles etc. are responsible for breaking of rocks.

→ Anthropological Weathering : Man is a biological agent affecting weathering, mining, blasting of hills and ridges for constructions of roads, railways, dams causing disintegration of rocks.

→ Importance of Weathering:

• It prepares the way for formation of soils and various landforms that we see on earth.
• It helps in enrichment and concentration of ores.

→ Mass Movement or Mass Wasting :
It is the down slope movement of loose mixture of soil, land rock particles by the force of gravity

→ Factors Responsible for Mass Movement:

1. Weak Materials and structures
2. Relief and slope
3. Water
4. Gravity

→ Types of Mass Movements:

1. Fall or topple
2. Flows
3. Slide
4. Creep

1. Fall or topple:
Free fall of rocks

2. Flows:
Mixture of water, rock and weathered material

3. Slide:
Soil section or rock suddenly moves down a slope

4. Creep:
Slow mass movement

→ Different Types of Material Flow:

1. Creep
2. Slowest
3. Only top and base

1. Creep-

• Slowest
• Only top and base

2. Rock fall-

• Rapid
• Mainly in rocky areas

3. Earth flow-

• Rapid or slow
• Water accumulates
• Hillsides in humid regions

4. Solifluction-
Downhill creep in periglacial or alpine regions

5. Landslide-

• Moderately steep
• Rocks or debris

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 8 India During Mauryan period

Rise of Magadha Empire:
Magadha was an important kingdom among the Mahajanapadas that existed in ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial rivers, excellent facilities of navigation, availability of commercial markets etc., were the reasons for the rise of Magadha as empire. In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka dynasty ruled over Magadha.

Nanda and Mauryan Empire:
Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan empire established by Ajatashatru was further expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread up to Nanded in the South, whereas some scholars think that it was extended up to Mysore.

On this basis it can be said that Mahapadma Nanda was the first great emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his period, the state treasury was enormously rich. His military was also very huge. It consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots.

Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was the first well organised and strongly controlled empire in the history of India. Religious texts and other literature, inscriptions, coins, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us to clearly understand the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of this period.

The Mauryan empire had spread on a large region of the Indian sub-continent and was controlled by a central power. The Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of the political system.

Emperor Ashoka: Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan empire after the death of Bindusara. He got himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and pillar inscriptions. During the early period of his rule, Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom.

He attacked Kalinga and conquered it. There was a great human loss in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The destruction caused due to the Kalinga War brought about a great change in the mind of Ashoka.

Administrative system, trade, literature, art and architecture, social life:
Administrative system: The nature of administrative system during the Mauryan period is clearly understood with the help of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya was a valiant king and an efficient administrator.

He set up a defined mechanism of state administration, which suited the economic conditions and the needs of the Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors created a unified empire. At the same time, they devised a decentralised administrative system for efficient functioning of the vast empire.

Trade: There was an increase in revenue due to well-organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a tax to be given in the scale of the land under cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax on production. Agricultural land and the tax acquired from the agricultural production was the basic foundation of the administrative system.

Industries gained momentum during this period. Cloth production was the most important industry. Apart from that metallurgy, carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and many such professions began.

Literature: Literature reflects the thought process of the people and the political, social, economic and religious conditions. During the Mauryan period, along with the literature in Sanskrit language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi literature in Prakrit language is also seen. For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism, literature was created in Prakrit language.

The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali, Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc. The world famous work of Panini’s Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period. Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in Sanskrit literature.

Art and architecture: After the establishment of Mauryan rule, there was happiness, peace, prosperity and good governance. Mauryan art is the beginning of ancient Indian architecture and the sculptural art. It appears that, during the Mauryan period, the artists had acquired the skill of cutting and carving the stone. In both, the skill of a specific expression of art and the technique of mirror polish of the stone is seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’.

During this period stone statues of Yaksha and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues of Yakshi are beautiful and finely carved. The famous Chauri bearer of Didarganj is supposed to be one of such statue. The Yaksha statues in Parkham and the female images at Besnagar and Patna of this period are exhibited in the Mathura museum.

Glossary:

→ Perennial – Lasting or existing for a long or infinite time.
→ Matrimonial – Related to marriage.
→ Expansionist policy – Relating to territorial or economic expansion.
→ Mahaparinibbana – Refers to the ultimate state of Nirvana (everlasting peace).

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Equality and Justice

Introduction:
This chapter deals with concepts of Equality and Justice which are concerned with the social order.
We will focus on the meaning, facets, importance and types of equality. We will also study the meaning and
types of justice. We will also look at the concepts of equality and justice in the Indian context.

Equality:
Meaning: Equality is an important ideal in society. Equality does not mean uniformity. It signifies that • all human beings have an equal worth, irrespective of their ethnicity, religion, caste, etc. Today, equality is looked at as a political goal as well as the basis of Liberty and Justice. It has a moral and collective dimension as it includes empathy and tolerance.

Natural inequalities are a reality since humans are not equal in physical or intellectual aspects. The struggle for equality is to do away with the restrictions and burdens of man-made inequalities that are created on the basis of religion, caste, race, status, wealth, etc. Equality is the attempt to create conditions where every individual is given equal opportunity to develop and progress.

Thus, equality is a rational concept. Laski explains it as “fundamentally, a levelling progress”.
The facets of equality are:

• Absence of special privileges to or of discriminations against anyone in the matter of socio-economic and political rights. No person or group should have special conditions that are denied to a large majority. For e.g., In the caste hierarchy, the lower castes were discriminated against while upper castes flourished as they had special status and privileges.
• Equality before law and equal protection of the law – The law is equally applicable to everyone irrespective of economic or social status, race, creed, etc.
• Equality of opportunity – To enhance one’s potential and to develop one’s personality irrespective of considerations like ethnicity, gender, community, etc. Deprived sections must have provisions for education, employment and social wellbeing to enable fair competition with others.
• Absolute equality is neither possible nor desirable as equality in no way implies uniformity.

History Of Equality:
The idea of equality has been studied since ancient Greek times, in the context of struggles against absolute monarchy and unequal social conditions. In his work ‘The Politics, Aristotle advocated equality before law and explained the correlation between equality and justice.

His idea of equality was with reference to the ruler and the ruled whom he considered naturally unequal on basis of inequality in intellectual abilities. Thomas Hobbes in his book ‘Leviathan’ explained that all persons must be treated as equals in spite of existing physical or intellectual inequalities.

Tocqueville’s idea of equality developed in the process of abolition of the feudal system and establishment of democracy. Rousseau analyzed natural inequalities (due to differences in physical strength, intellectual abilities, etc.) and man-made inequalities (arising due to private property, division of labour and exploitation by the rich). Equality could be brought about by natural law.

Karl Marx propounded the socialist idea of equality i.e. it can be achieved by creating a ‘classless society. He gave importance to emancipation of workers from exploitation and to equitable distribution of the means of production.

Indian Context:
Many sections of Indian society exhibits obstacles to social equality arising due to caste hierarchy and subsequent discrimination as well as due to a patriarchal system. Most social reformers have worked towards creation of a just society. Mahatma Phule focused on elimination of discriminations based on caste and gender.

Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade worked in areas of women’s rights and promoting widow remarriage.
Mahatma Gandhi focused on socio-economic and gender equality. Dr. Babasaheh Amhedkar also focused on social, cultural, political and economic equality through elimination of the caste system.

Importance Of Equality:

• Equality is necessary to uphold the dignity of the individual.
• It is necessary to create a just society.
• It is necessary to promote mutual respect among members of a society.
• It helps to bring about fraternity.
• Liberty and equality are the cornerstones of a democracy.

Types Of Equality:
→ Natural Equality considers that all human beings are equal though they differ in abilities. Every person should get equal opportunity to develop his/her potential. Early Greek thinkers like Plato and Aristotle did not believe in natural equality. However, thinkers like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau explained about natural equality in the ‘State of Nature’.

→ Social Equality refers to absence of unreasonable social barriers or discrimination such as those based on race, religion, caste, gender, status, etc. No person must be viewed as superior or inferior merely on the basis of birth, ethnicity or social position.

→ However, social inequality is prevalent all over the world even today. Legislations, education and economic progress can help to reduce social inequality for e.g., in India Article 17 of the constitution deals with the abolition of untouchability.

→ Civil Equality means that civil rights are equally available to all individuals. There is equality before law and equal protection of the law. However, special laws made for the protection or upliftment of weaker sections of society such as tribals, backward classes, women, etc., do not violate the principle of equality.

→ Political Equality is possible only in a democracy. It refers to the right of citizens to participate in the affairs of the state. It is based on the principle of political participation and Universal Adult Franchise.

→ Economic Equality – When wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few (economic inequality), then political power and social ranking is also monopolized by them, resulting in exploitation of the underprivileged sections of society. Economic equality does not imply equal distribution of wealth or equal income irrespective of the nature of work.

Economic equality implies to the following –

• Reduction in wide disparities of wealth.
• Prevention of concentration of wealth and income in the hands of a few persons.
• Absence of any kind of economic exploitation, denial or subjugation.
• Availability of essential goods and services i.e. minimum needs must be satisfied first.
• Reasonable economic opportunities for individuals to develop themselves and to progress.
• Adequate scope for work and for decent wages.

Justice:
Meaning: Justice implies righteousness, which is used as a basis for judging values and conduct. It is an ancient concept. Greek philosopher, Socrates considered justice as a political virtue. Plato identified justice with truth and morality while Aristotle expressed that justice can be achieved in a society only when there is equality and balance. In ancient India, justice was associated with the concept of ‘Dharma’.

Types of Justice:
The term justice refers to a state of affairs in which every individual has exactly those burdens and benefits which are due to him.

Natural Justice – This concept is linked to the very existence of human beings and was advocated by ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Humans can intrinsically and universally understand concepts of right and wrong. Hence there is no need for man-made law.

Legal Justice – John Austina considered law as a means to eliminate injustice and to establish a just society. Justice is a precondition to law.

Social Justice – The concept of social justice implies equal social opportunities to every individual to progress to the fullest possible extent. Social justice is reformative i.e., it aims at a revision of the social order.

It involves eradication of existing social evils. Social justice is also distributive i.e., available resources should be equitably distributed to ensure social welfare. It is not just related to individuals or groups, but to society at large.

Social justice is dynamic i.e. it modifies according to changing needs and situations.
The two approaches of social justice are

1. Procedural justice advocated by Nozick i.e., everyone should be treated equally before law and proper legal procedures must be followed
2. Social justice propagated by Marx, Rawls and Dr. Ambedkar. According to Karl Marx, the state is an instrument of exploitation of the workers and ‘have-nots’. Transformation of a capitalist system into a socialist system will ensure an equitable distribution of resources. Rawls advocated the concept of distributive justice and the principle of fairness.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 1 Earth Movements

→ Hills, mountains, plateaus, valleys etc., are the landforms formed due to internal and external processes.

→ The earth’s surfaces changes slowly and continuously due to forces like tension and compression.

→  Earth Movements:

1. Internal (Endogenic) Movements:
Slow Movements: Formation of mountains and continents

2. External (Exogenic) Movements:
Sudden Movements : Earthquakes and volcanoes

Slow Movements :

• The earth’s movements which are the result of internal forces are known as tectonic movements.
• Based on the direction of slow movements they are classified as vertical and horizontal movements.

Slow Movements :

1. Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :
   Continent-building movements
2. Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements
   Mountain-building processes

Vertical (Epeirogenic) Movements :

• These movements occur due to the forces in the interior of the earth and the travel of energy.
• Slow movements take place either towards the centre of the earth or away from it towards the
  crust.
• Due to these movements, an extensive portion of the crust is either raised up or it subsides.
  This portion of the crust, raised above sea-level leads to formation of continents.
• Slow movements also cause formation of extensive plateaus.

Horizontal (Orogenic) Movements:

• Horizontal movements work in horizontal direction, creating compression or tension in the rock
  strata.
• These movements lead to folds or cracks in the surface of the earth and gives rise to mountains.
  These movements are slow movements causing folds or faults, after which, fold mountains or
  block mountains are formed.
• Horizontal movements are further divided into tensional forces and compressional forces.

Horizontal (Orogenic Movements):

• Tensional Forces: Raptures, cracks, fractures, faults
• Compressional Forces: Folding and faulting

→ Tensional forces move away from each other causing stress in the rock strata thus, creating raptures, cracks, fractures and faults.

→ Rift valley and block mountains are formed as a result of tensional forces.

→ Compressional forces operate towards each other; causing various folding.

→ Folding occurs due to factors like nature of rocks, intensity and duration of force.

→ Folding occurs when compressional forces are applied to rocks that are ductile or flexible.

→ Folding results in formation of fold mountains, e.g., Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes, etc.

→ Parts of Fold:

• Limbs
  Both sides of a fold are called limbs
• Axial
  A plane that divides the fold into two parts
• Axis
  May be vertical, inclined or horizontal
• Anticlines
  Limbs sloping downward with central portion getting raised up
• Synclines
  Limbs sloping towards each other with central portion located at lower elevation

→ Fold mountains are classified depending on their age.

→ Fold Mountains:

1. Old Fold Mountains (Over 200 million years)
Example : Aravalis in India, Urals in Russia,
Appalachians in USA

2. Young Fold Mountains (10 to 25 million years)
Example : Rockies and Himalayas

→ Types of Folds

1. Symmetrical (axial plane is vertical)
2. Asymmetrical (axial plane is inclined)
3. Overturned (one limb lies above other limb)
4. Recumbent (axial plane is almost vertical)
5. Isoclinal (limbs slope in the same direction)

→ Faulting :

• Faulting can be classified according to displacement in rocks. The plane of fracture is called fault.
• Faulting results in the formation of block mountains and rift valleys.

→ Types of Faults:

1. Normal Fault (portion of land slides down along fault plane)
2. Thrust Fault Reverse Fault (portion of land on one side gets detached and moves on the other side)
3. Reverse Fault: (portion of land is thrown upward)
4. Tear Fault (movement occurs along the plane in horizontal direction)

→ Tensional forces tend to pull the crust apart and faults are developed.

→  The tension may cause subsidence in the central portion of the crust between two adjacent faults, forming graben or rift valleys, which have steep walls. For e.g., African Rift Valley, Narmada and Tapi Rift Valleys in India.

→  Sudden movements refer to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Earthquake refers to shaking of the ground due to release of stress and energy.

→  The point where the accumulated stress gets released within the earth’s crust is called seismic focus.

→  A point directly above it, on the surface of the earth is the epicentre.

→  The earthquake waves are recorded by an instrument called seismograph.

→ Causes Of Earthquakes

1. Volcanicity
2. Tectonic movement
3. Anthropogenic causes

→  Classification of Volcanoes:
Eruption:

• Formation of mountains and continents
• Eruption through fissures

Periodicity:

• Active
• Dormant
• Extinct or dead

→ Types of Volcanic Materials:

1. Liquid material
2. Solid materials
3. Gaseous materials

Liquid material:

• Acidic Lava
• Basic Lava

Solid materials:

• Dust Particles
• Rock Fragments

Gaseous materials:
Smoke

→ Three major belts or zones of earthquake and volcanoes:

1. Circum-Pacific Belt
2. Mid – Atlantic Belt
3. Mid-Continental Belt

Circum-Pacific Belt: Ring of Fire
Mid – Atlantic Belt: Mid – Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Continental Belt:

1. Alpine Mountain Chains
2. Mediterranean Sea
3. Fault Zone of Eastern Africa

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 6 Population in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 6 Population in India

→ Population :

• It refer to the number of people living in an area at a given point of time.
• It is measured once in every 10 years.
• It is measured through census survey.
• India ranks second in the world next to China.
• Population statistics are collected, compiled and published by Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India.

→ Kautilya wrote ‘Arthashastra’ in 3rd century B. C.

→ Year 1872 is marked as first population Census of India

→ World population crossed 500 crores on 11th July, 1987

→ 11th July is observed as “World Population Day”

→ There was marginal decline in population during the period 1911 – 1921 due to spread of epidemics – influenza, cholera, plague, malaria, etc.

→ The year 1921 is designated as ‘Year of Great Divide”.

→ Theories Of Population Growth

(a) Malthusian Theory
(b) Theory of Demographic Transition

(a) Malthusian Theory:

• Thomas Robert Malthus
• “An Essay on the Principle of Population” (1798)
• Population increases in Geometric Progression and Food supply increases in Arithmetic Progression (Imbalance between population and food supply)
• Imbalance can be balanced by preventive checks and natural checks

(b) Theory of Demographic Transition:

• A. J. Coale and E. M, Hoover
• “Population growth and Economic Development in low-income countries” (1958).
• This theory explains transition from high to low birth rates and death rates.
• Stage of Demographic transition:
  • First stage (Low growth of population)
  • Second stage (High growth of population)
  • Third stage (Low or Stable population)

→ Features of 1st Stage of Demographic Transition.

Low growth of population
↑
High birth and High death rate
↑
People ruled by old customs and beliefs
↑
Illiteracy among people, mass poverty, orthodoxy etc.
↑
Agriculture as main occupation (Pre-industrialised and primitive stage)
↑
Low economic development

→ Features of 2nd Stage of Demographic Transition.

Experienced by India and other developing countries
↑
Birth rate remained high
↑
Death rate falls rapidly
↑
Improvement in economic development
↑
Introduction of Industrialisation

→ Features of 3rd Stage of Demographic Transition.

Experienced by all developed countries
↑
Stable Population growth
↑
Fall in Birth and Death Rate
↑
Improvement in Literacy rate
↑
Shifting of people from rural to urban
↑
Structure of economy changes
↑
Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation

→ Concept related to Population Growth

• Birth rate
  (Fertility Rate)
• Death Rate
  (Mortality Rate)
• Survival Rate
  (Survival Rate = Birth rate – Death rate)

→ Situation where the growth of population is faster than the growth and development of an economy, it is called as Population explosion.

→ Causes:
Low Death Rate:

(a) Improvement in medical and health facilities.
(b) Decline in Maternal Mortality Rate
(c) Fall in infant mortality rate
(d) Increase in literacy
(e) Use of nutritious food
(f) Disaster management
(g) Other factors

High Death Rate:

(a) Illiteracy
(b) Universalization of marriage
(c) Age of marriage
(d) Preference of Male child
(e) Joint Family System
(1) Dependence on Agriculture
(g) Widespread Poverty
(h) Lack of awareness about family welfare services

→ Effects of Population Explosion:

(a) Increased pressure on land
(b) Increased pressure on agriculture
(c) Pressure on infrastructure and basic amenities
(d) Imbalance between demand for and supply of food
(e) Inflation
(f) Environmental problems
(g) Social problems
(h) Low national income

→ Measures To Check Population Explosion:

(A) Economic Measures
(B) Social Measures
(C) Population Policy Of India

(A) Economic Measures

• Expansion of industrial sector.
• Creation of employment opportunities.
• Removal of poverty
• Equitable distribution of income and wealth.

(B) Social Measures

• Spread of education
• Improving the status of women
• Raising the minimum age of marriage

(C) Population Policy Of India

• Family Planning Programme
• Family Welfare Programme
• National Population Policy, 2000 (NPP)

→ Feature Of National Population Policy:

• Free and compulsory education — upto the age of 14 years.
• Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births.
• Reduce Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to below 100 per 1,00,000 live births.
• Universal immunization of children.
• Delayed marriage for girls — preferably from 18 to 20.
• Prevention and control of communicable diseases.
• Achieve a stable population by 2045.

→ Human Resource :

• Population constitutes a nation’s valuable human resource.
• It is not equally distributed all over the world.
• It differs in terms of education, age and sex.
• UNDP — introduced the concept of‘Human Development’ in 1990.

→ Role of human resources in economic development:

• Contributes to reduction in civil disturbances in a society, then increased political stability.
• Contributes to improvement in life expectancy and literacy rate. This improves the quality of life.
• Provision of educational facilities especially among women that contributes to population control.
• Helps to bring about research and development.
• It leads to .increase in human productivity.
• It leads to overall improvement in the society.

Word Meaning:

rapidly – very quickly; epidemics – wide spread of disease at particular time; decadal – a period of 10 years; designated – selected; tremendous – huge; declining – decreasing; propounded – presented; geometric progression – increased in numbers with a constant ratio between each other; arithmetic progression – a sequence of numbers which differs the same from each other; preventive checks – precautionary measures; demographic transition – changes in structure of population; primitive – ancient/old; superstitions – old belief; verge – border; inferences – conclusion; rigid – unable to change; obligations – something one must do as per the law; ignorant – lack of knowledge: optimum – favourable; beliefs – religious feelings or opinion; malnutrition – not having enough food as required; inflation – increase in price; enrichment – improve the quality; mortality – death; life expectancy – expected age of survival; rational – well reasoned; immunization – making a person to immune against infection; orthodoxy – traditional.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 7 Second Urbanisation in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 7 India and Iran (Persia)

Indian Subcontinent and Iran:
Excavated evidence has sufficiently proved that the trade and cultural relations between the Indian subcontinent and Iran have continued since the Harappan times. The Empire of Elam, contemporary to the Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’. Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’.

The Iranian empire was established by Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the tribe of Tars’. This tribe dwelt in the mountainous region in the northwest of Iran and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was known by the tribe’s name, Tars’. Even the main city of the region was known by the same name, Tars’. Greeks knew the city by the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire was known as ‘Persian Empire’ because it is originated in the Pars region.

Conflict between the Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece:
Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around the mid of the 6th century B.C.E. As a result, the Ionian Greek city-states under the Lydian rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’. During the reign of Daryush I all Ionian city-states got together and rebelled against the Achaemenid rule.

The rebellion was subdued completely after a struggle of five years by the Achaemenid army. The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion are important for understanding the interrelationship between Greece and Persia in the ensuing period.

Arrian was a Greek historian of the 1st century C.E. He wrote a book called ‘Anabasis of Alexander. He has referred to the correspondence between Daryush III, the last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander. Daryush had written to Alexander about the release of his mother, wife and children.

Alexander responded by reminding Daryush of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors. Alexander wrote that he had arrived in Russia by crossing the ocean, with the intention of punishing the aggressive Persians.

Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and India:
The Achaemenid emperors established the Persian empire by conquering smaller kingdoms in the northeast region of the Indian subcontinent and expanded their boundary up to Punjab. It was the same period when the Magadha empire was on the rise in India.

It becomes apparent from the inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors and the records kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II had conquered the region of the Kabul basin (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had formed its eastern boundary.

Alexander crushed the Achaemenid empire and the region of Punjab which was the part of ‘ Achaemenid empire. The revenue received by the Achaemenid empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the Indian subcontinent was more than any other provinces. According to Herodotus, this revenue amounted to 360 talents of gold dust.

Political and Cultural Impact of the Iranian Contact:
The Persian supremacy prevailed in the Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. However, it had ended much before the advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact left by the Persian contact in the period of two centuries, one thing can be noticed prominently.

It is about the administrative system set by the Persian rulers. Every conquered region was annexed to their territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor) was appointed as its chief administrator. This method was followed by Alexander and later by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers as well.

The Aramaic script came into use in the north-eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic script.

The method of installing royal edicts at vantage points seems to be borrowed from the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions. Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had sent many explorers to gather information about the course of the river Sindhu and the Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who was well- known. He was the first Ionian Greek who stepped on the Indian land.

Taxila:
Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka as the king of‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the capital of Kang Takshaka. The archaeological evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary past. It was the capital of Gandhara mahajanapada. The archaeological remains of this city are strewn over a large area that comprises 18 archaeological sites.

They are enlisted as the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. Evidence of prehistoric people using microliths have been found at Taxila and in some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic village at Taxila was settled around 3500 B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site called ‘Sarai-Khola’.

Advent of Alexander:
Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He, however, could not establish his rule there for a long time. The information of his advent primarily comes from the Greek historians like Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, Plutarch and Justin.

At the time of Alexander’s advent the Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and Afghanistan had weakened and a number of small kingdoms had come into existence. The political strife stopped them from uniting to resist Alexander’s invasion. Alexander became the king of Macedonia in 334 B.C.E.

In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at Babylon, while he was on his way back to Greece. Alexander’s invasion of India did not have far-reaching impact on the political scenario of India. In a very short period after his death, Chandragupta Maurya established his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan. It was the beginning of a new era in the Indian history.

Glossary:

→ Fortification – A defensive wall or other reinforcement built to strengthen a place against attack.

→ Rebellion – The act of fighting against authority or refusing to accept rules.

→ Confederacy – A union of states, groups of people or political parties with the same aim.

→ Provocating – Incitement.

→ Snubbed – To treat someone rudely.

→ Barter System – Exchange of goods and services for other services in return. An old method of exchange.