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By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Cognitive Processes

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become aware of and understand the world around us. It includes processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size, movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence, motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement, etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.

Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation. In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning meaning to information received about the environment based on the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:
Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize top-down processing, our ability to understand information is influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:
Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together. Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path. Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive elements and processes that involves the manipulation of information.

The core elements of thinking are –

• Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
• Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes, acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to form more complex concepts.
• Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes knowledge about related concepts and relationships among them.
• Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

• Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the problem correctly.
• Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for possible solutions to the problem.
• Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers to be the most effective solution.
• Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution – The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results, he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The period helps to work out the problem without consciously thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

• It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.
• The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
• Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in muscular movements.
• Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:
Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F. Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:
Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:
Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision making, etc.

Glossary:

→  Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→  Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past experiences and memory and helps in perception and interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental representation and manipulation of information.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 1 Psychology: A Scientific Discipline

Introduction:
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘knowledge’. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world, following a systematic methodology based on evidence.

The key features of science are:

• Empirical evidence – It refers to acquiring information through direct observation or experiments. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence.
• Objectivity – This refers to the ability to observe and accept facts as they exist, setting aside all sources of expectations, values, prejudices, etc.
• Scientific causality – Science aims to establish a cause-effect between the variables under consideration, i.e., the effect of the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable.
• Systematic exploration – Science adopts a sequential procedure for studying various phenomena. It includes scientific steps like formulating a hypothesis, collection of facts, scientific generalisation etc.
• Replication – Scientific knowledge can be replicated under the same circumstances as the original experiment. This ensures reliability of results towards establishing a scientific theory.
• Predictability – Science involves describing and explaining phenomena as well as to make predictions accordingly.

History Of Psychology As A Science:

• Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. It was earlier a branch of philosophy. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig (Germany), Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory. This led to psychology as a separate scientific discipline.
• Structuralism advocated by Wundt and Titchener is regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. Functionalism was advocated by William James. Psychoanalysis was proposed by Sigmund Freud.
• In the early 20th century, John Watson advocated a new school of thought in psychology, i.e., Behaviourism. It focused on the study of observable behaviours.
• In the later half of the 20th century, Humanistic Psychology was advocated by Carl Rogers. It focused on the power of free will towards self-actualization.
• American Psychologist, Ulric Neisser, is considered as the founder of Cognitive Psychology which focuses on cognitive processes.

Research Methods In Psychology:

Experimental Method – The systematic observation about a certain problem under controlled laboratory conditions is called an experiment.

The steps involved in an experiment are:

• identifying the problem,
• formulating a hypothesis,
• selecting an experimental design,
• conducting the experiment and data collection,
• data analysis,
• drawing conclusions.

The features of the experimental method are :

• it is the most objective and scientific method of studying behaviour
• it helps to establish cause-effect relationship between two or more variables
• the findings of an experiment are verifiable.
• The limitations of this method are :
• it may not be possible to control all intervening variables,
• it has a limited scope, i.e., there may be ethical constraints or risk factors
• experimenter’s expectations or participant attitude may influence the conclusions.

Survey Method – A survey is a research method used to collect data from a pre-determined group of respondents, i.e., a sample. It is used to obtain information about the preferences, opinions, etc., of the ‘sample’ population making use of tools like questionnaires, checklists, interviews, etc.

Survey method is employed by social psychologists, industrial psychologists, etc. The researcher must ensure that the sample of respondents is representative of the population.

Observation Method – It is a research method that is employed in conditions where experiments may not be possible or even necessary. Observation method is used by child psychologists and social psychologists. It may be carried out in a natural setting, for e.g., observing candidates waiting their turn for an interview or may be done in controlled conditions.

It is a time-consuming, subjective method. It needs to be carried out in a systematic manner for it to be considered as scientific.

Case Study Method – It is a qualitative research method employed by clinical psychologists. It provides intensive, descriptive information about an individual from multiple sources such as family, peers, school, etc.

This helps to assess the person’s level of psychological and social functioning. Researchers employ techniques like observation, interviews, psychological tests, etc.

Correlation Method – A correlation refers to a statistical tool used to measure the relationship between two or more variables.

If the change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the other variable, this interdependence is called correlation. It is measured by correlation coefficient which extends between -1.00 to +1.00.

The types of correlation are :
Positive correlation – Both variables either increase or decrease at the same time, for e.g., extent of rehearsal (revision) ↑ and recall score ↑. The value of positive correlation from 0.00 to + 1.00. It is represented as :

Negative correlation – An increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other and vice versa. The value of the correlation is between 0.00 to -1.00, for e.g., bunking of lectures (↑) and score in exams (↓).

Zero correlation – A change in one variable leads to no significant change in the other variable, for e.g., height and intelligence.

Challenges In Establishing Psychology As A Science:

Many criticisms of psychology as a science have been made on practical, philosophical and ethical grounds.

The challenges in establishing psychology as a science are :

• It is in pre paradigmatic state – According to American philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, psychology is still in a preparadigmatic state as it has not succeeded in producing a cumulative body of knowledge that has a clear conceptual core. In psychology, basic paradigms on which the whole scientific inquiry can rest do not exist.
• Issues related to objectivity and validity – Methods used in psychology such as introspection, surveys and questionnaires are subjective. Due to this, psychology lacks two criteria of science, i.e., objectivity and validity.
• Issues related to predictability and replicability – In psychology, it is difficult to make exact predictions as people respond differently in different situations. Test results tend to be more varied and hence difficult to replicate.
• Objectifying humans – According to some psychologists, subjecting human behaviour to experimentation amounts to objectifying human beings.

Rationality:
One of the significant aims of individuals is the attainment of happiness. However, in the pursuit of happiness, one should not be driven by irrational influences or compromise on social norms and ethics. Psychology helps to improving life quality by applying the concept of rationality in daily life.

According to Stanovich, “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning, good judgement and good decision making.”

According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality helps a person to successfully attain goals and be happy. He proposed Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), which is a popular intervention method in counselling psychology.

According to Ellis, rational people possess characteristics such as:

• Understanding both self-interest and social interest – Rational people understand what choices help them to grow and take responsibility for their actions. They are also careful not to violate the rights of others.
• Self-direction – The person does not demand excessive attention or support from others as he/she assumes the responsibility for his/her own life.
• Tolerance – It is the willingness to accept beliefs and behaviour patterns of others that may differ from our own way of thinking.
• Flexibility – Rational people tend to be flexible and unbiased in their thoughts and actions.
• Self-acceptance and self-responsibility – A rational person accepts him/herself unconditionally as well as takes responsibility for his/her thoughts, emotions and behaviour.

The concept of rationality can be explained as :

Glossary:

→ Correlation Coefficient – A number which denotes the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables, it ranges between .1.00 to + 1.00.

→  Independent Variable – The variable being studied in an experiment it may change due to manipulations of the independent variable.

→ Hypothesis – A tentative explanation that can be tested to determine if it is true.

→ Independent Variable – In an experiment the variable that is systematically changed or manipulated by the experimenter in order to study its effect on the dependent variable.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in research.

→ Participant In a research study the individual who voluntarily participates and whose behaviour is being studied. Also called a subject or experimental participant.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research study that consists of a senes of questions that is used to collect information from the participants.

→ Replicability – It is the possibility to replicate a research or its findings in order to test its validity.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 7 Unemployment in India

→ Unemployment: It is a situation in which people in the age group of 15 to 59 years though able and willing to work at the available wage rate but unable to get a job.

→ As per N.S.S.O:
As Per National Sample Survey Organisation (N.S.S.O.)

1. Unemployed
2. Underemployed
3. Employed

Unemployed:
One who work for less than 14 hours per week

Underemployed:
One who work for 15-28 hours a week

Employed:
One who work for 8 hours per day or 273 days in a year

→ Concept of Unemployment:

Involuntary Unemployment:
Situation where people willing to work – but no work is available.

Voluntary Unemployment:
Situation where a person is fit and able to work but not willing to work.

Underemployment:
Situation where a person’s capacity to work is under utilised.

Full Employment:
Situation where all available resources used fully in most efficient manner.

→ Causes of Unemployment

1. Jobless growth
2. Increase in labour force
3. Migration of rural population
4. Excessive use of machinery
5. Lack of skill development programmes
6. Slow rate of economic development
7. Seasonal nature of agriculture
8. Expectations towards employment

→ Types of Unemployment:

→ Effects of Unemployment:

Economic Effects:

• Waste of human resources
• Difficult to implement welfare schemes
• Poverty and income inequality
• Growth of informal sector
• High dependency ratio

Social Effects:

• Social tension and unrest
• Loss of human dignity
• Helplessness

→ Measures to Reduce Unemployment:
General Measures:

• Development of agricultural sector
• Provision for alternative occupation
• Development of infrastructure
• Reforms in the educational system
• Development of Tourism
• Use of labour-intensive techniques
•  Development of Information technology and communication
• Provision for vocational training and skill development facilities
• Rural industrialization
• Motivation for self employment

Specific Measures:

• Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS)
• Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
• Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)
• Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
• ‘Training Rural Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM)
• ‘Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)
• ‘Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)
• ‘Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana 2014
• ‘National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship -2015
• Start up India Initiative
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana-(2016-20)

Word Meaning:

unemployment – state of being not working; mass- large number; gambling – playing games with intention to earn money; anti-social – against law and custom of the society; prevailing – at a particular time; hypothetical – unreal; slack season – lack of work; disguised – invisible; surplus – excess; over crowding – presence of more people in a given space; white collar jobs – administrative jobs; adaptability – adjust to new condition; capital intensive – large amount of money to run business; computerisation – doing activities/work through computer; depression- decline/slowdown; drastic – major; mismatch – differences; unprecedented – not known; abundant – available in large quantity; vocational – education relating to an occupation; compatible – suitable; aspire – aim for; dependency – seeking support / depend on; mission – target/aim, viable – achievable, advocacy – policy, aspiration – goal, cyclical – occuring in cycle.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Humanitarian Issues students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Humanitarian Issues

Introduction

Globalization brought in concepts like participatory State, environmental concerns, awareness of human rights, etc. Today, humanitarian issues have assumed significance.

Environment refers to everything that makes up our surroundings i.e., the conditions in which organisms live. The environment includes the natural environment i.e., all living and non-living things (e.g., soil, atmosphere, water, etc) that occur naturally as well as built environment i.e., natural environment that is modified into a human environment e.g., roads, bridges, etc.

Efforts to protect the environment-

→ UN Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) The purpose was to encourage and provide guidelines for the protection of the environment.

→ World Commission on Environment and Development (1983) also called Brundtland Commissions put forward the concept of sustainable growth.

→ Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) sought to raise public awareness on the need to integrate environment and development and to create a partnership between developing and more industrialized nations to ensure a healthy future for the planet.

→ Earth Summit at Johannesburg (2002) recognized sustainable development as the most important goal for institutions at the national, regional, and international levels.

→ UN Conference on sustainable development (Rio-2012) is also called Rio Earth Summit or Rio+20. Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality.
Its goal is to conserve natural resources, reduce pollution, develop alternate sources of power, etc.

Some of the important environmental concerns include –

→ Climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions have resulted in extreme weather conditions like flooding, wildfires, etc.

→ Pollution – Smog, air pollution, etc endanger public health.

→ Deforestation worsens global warming and also threatens humans and animals who rely on forests to sustain themselves

→ Water scarcity is a worldwide problem.

→ Loss of Biodiversity is mainly due to climate change and threatens food security and population health.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate change is the nodal agency in India for planning, promotion, coordination, and implementation of the country’s environmental and forest policies and programmes. The main concerns of MoEFCC relate to the conservation of natural resources and biodiversity and the prevention of pollution. It is guided by the principle of sustainable development.

Poverty And Development:
The traditional perception of poverty is where people are unable to provide for their basic necessities of life. It is the deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food, clothing, shelter, and safe drinking water. The alternate view of poverty focuses on both material and non-material aspects i.e., focus on community ties, values and availability of common resources, participatory decision making, and political and economic decentralization.

The purpose of development is to ensure the welfare of the people and is associated with economic growth. The traditional approaches to development focus on the predominant role of the State in promoting economic growth (Socialist) or the role of a free-market economy (Capitalist). Since the 1990s, the alternative view of development that focuses on both material and non-material aspects has become acceptable. The focus today is a development based on equity, participation, empowerment, and sustainability.

According to ECOSOC, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities and a violation of human dignity. Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods.

The first UN Decade for poverty eradication (1997-2006) and the second UN Decade for ‘poverty eradication (2008-2017) stated that poverty is the greatest global challenge and that it is necessary to bring about sustainable development to alleviate poverty. Democratization and protection of human rights are key components of good governance that are necessary to eradicate poverty.

Poverty And Development In India:
India’s vision of development had three aspects :

→ Modernisation of the Economy – During the Nehruvian period, the focus was on land reforms, irrigation and large scale industrialisation to provide employment and increase productivity.

→ Self-reliance – This included ‘import substitution strategy to develop indigenous industry.

→ Socialist pattern of society – It was based on promotion of the Welfare State, employment generation and importance to the public sector. The Planning Commission (March 1950 to 31st December 2014) was created to chalk out Five Year Plans for development.

→ ‘Growth with Social Justice and Equity has been India’s policy towards poverty and development. Its development strategy has evolved over the years. In the early stages, government played a dominant role through the public sector. The 1960s were the period of the Green Revolution.

In the 1980’s India faced on economic crisis, due to poor performance of the public sector and wasteful public expenditure programmes. After 1991, wide-ranging economic reforms were initiated. Policies of economic liberalisation and privatisation of public sector were initiated.

→ The government, along with private sector and civil society continue to play an important role in socio-economic development. The Global MPI released by the UNDP indicates that between 2005-06 and 2015-16 incidence of multidimensional poverty has decreased from 54.7% to 27.5%.

Gender Issues:

There is a distinct link between poverty and unsatisfactory conditions of women. In most parts of the world, women are poor due to cultural norms and unequal power equations between men and women. In the 1970s, women’s empowerment came to be accepted as an important philosophy to bring about gender justice.

The UN ‘Decade for Women’ began in 1976 with the following objectives:

• to link women’s issues with developmental issues
• to promote equal rights and opportunities for women across the globe.

Some of the important gender-related issues in India:

→ Economic inequality – There is a high level of the male-female wage gap. The participation of women in the labour force is only 28.2 %

→ Literacy rate – As per the 2011 census report, the female literacy rate is 65.46% as compared to 82.14% of male literacy

→ Trafficking and exploitation – Women in India, especially in the hinterland, are vulnerable to be forced into marriage, to work as maids or in the flesh trade

→ Low political representation – There is a 33% reservation for women in elected local bodies only. Women representatives are few, both in Parliament and in most State legislatures.

→ The 1st Lok Sabha had 24 women (5%) and the 17th Lok Sabha has 78 women (14%) which is the highest representation to date. The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was set up in 1953 to carry out welfare activities for women, children, etc.

The evolution of approaches to women’s issues are :

→ Welfare approach – It focused on community development through Mahila Mandals, health, and education programmes, etc.

→ Development approach – It focused on the rights and status of women in areas of health, education, and employment.

→ Empowerment approach – It focused on the participation of women in planning and implementing welfare schemes was necessary.

→ National Commission for Women (NCW) was established on 31st January 1992 under provisions of the NCW Act (1990).

→ 73rd and 74th amendments (1993) provided for reservation of seats in local bodies (like Municipalities, Panchayats) for women. Department of Women and Child Development was set up as a separate ministry in 2006 to create gender equitable and child-centered legislation and programmes.

Legislations for women’s welfare include the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, Muslim Women (Protection of Right of Marriage) Act, (2019).

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 11 Kingdoms in South India

Important Kingdoms in South India Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties:
Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were the ancient ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms in the South are mentioned in Megasthenes’ ‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one of the main sources of history of South Indian rulers.

Chola Dynasty: The Chola Kingdom was established in first-century C.E. Chola dynasty originated in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli (Tamil Nadu) This province was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had established their rule from Pudukkottai to Kanyakumari.

Vakataka Dynasty: The power of Satavahanas started growing weaker from the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took. advantage of this situation and established independent rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti, King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in the North and from Gujarat to South upto Kolhapur, Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). Kolhapur was known as ‘Kuntala’ at that time. Pravarasena I performed four Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title ‘Samrat’.

Chalukyas: During the rule of Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya dynasty ruled in the south for. approximately 200 years. Jaising was the founder of this dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E. he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami). His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first important king of the Chalukyas.

He built the fort of Badami. He performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’.

Pallavas: Around 6th century C.E. to 9th century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the most powerful rulers in South India. Historians vary in their views regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the Pallavas are found. There is a mention of Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava who ruled over the regions of eastern coast. Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas.

We get a detailed information of the Pallava dynasty beginning from the reign of Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting etc.

Rashtrakutas: Dantidurga was the first powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in North India as well.

Shilaharas: There were three branches of this dynasty – Shilaharas of south Konkan, north Konkan and Kolhapur. They called themselves as ‘Tagarapuradhishwar’ (Tagar-Ter, Osmanabad district). Jimutvahan is considered as the founder of all the three branches. They ruled for almost three hundred years as the feudatories of Rashtrakutas and later the Chalukyas.

Shilaharas of South Konkan:
‘Sanafulla’ established the south Kokan branch of Shilaharas. His son, Dhammiyar set up the village of Vallipattana and built a fort there. Later King Adityavarma expanded his kingdom from Thane to Goa. Rattaraj was the last ruler of this dynasty. The history of this dynasty is known with the help of one of the copper plates found at Kharepatan.

Shilaharas of North Konkan:
Kapardi established the north Kokan branch of Shilaharas. Rulers of this branch were initially the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Their capital was at Sthanak (Thane).

Aparajita was another important king of this branch. He ruled for around thirty-five years. Chittaranjan followed Aparajita asking. His brothers fought for their claim to the throne.

Shilaharas of Kolhapur:
The modern districts of Satara, Sangli, Ratnagiri, and Belgaum were included in this kingdom. Jatiga established the Kolhapur branch of Shilaharas. Bhoj II was the important king of this dynasty. The cities of Kolhapur, Valivade and Panhala were the capitals of this kingdom. The Shilaharas of Kolhapur are credited with the creation of the magnificent ‘Koppeshwar Mahadev’ temple at Khidrapur.

Gonds: The Gond dynasty was established at Chanda (Chandrapur) during the Yadava period. Kol Bheel was the founder of this dynasty. He brought the people of Gond tribe together and encouraged them to rebel against the Naga dynasty. He established the capital at Sirpur.

In the later period, Khandkya Ballal Singh built a fort at Ballarpur and shifted the capital from Sirpur to Ballarpur. The temple at Achaleshwar was constructed during his period.

Yadavas: Yadava dynasty is one of the important dynasties of medieval Maharashtra. Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded the kingdom by defeating the v Kalachuris. He established his capital at Devgiri and got himself coronated.

In the later period, Singhan was an important ruler of this dynasty. He defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and expanded the rule of Yadavas.

Administrative system, trade, social life:
In the administrative systems of South Indian dynasties, there were officials such as ‘Mahadandanayaka’, ‘Rashtrika’, ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc. The council of officers in the Chola kingdom was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was divided into many provinces.

These provinces were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of the royal family was the chief of the Mandalam. There were many officers under him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’, ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc. The administration of the Southern kingdoms was very efficient.

Literature, art, architecture:
The ‘Sangham literature’ is supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil tradition. This literature is one of the main sources of political history of South India. It is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council) were held. This period was important from the point of view of Sanskrit literature.

Kalidasa composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule, compositions in Prakrit language were created. Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’. ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena, the founder of Vatsagulm branch of Vakatakas.

Two styles of architecture are seen in South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture. The Dravida style of architecture emerged and developed in the regions from Krishna river to Kanyakumari. The important feature of Dravida architecture identified by construction of Shikhara. In this type the storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises. Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore are some of the excellent examples of Dravida style of architecture.

Glossary:

→ Reign – To rule a country.

→ Expedition – A journey undertaken for a specific purpose.

→ Province – An administrative division or unit of a country.

→ Feudatories – Persons who hold lands by feudal tenure.

→ Prevalent – Common.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 10 Changing Times students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 10 Changing Times

Nomadic tribes of Central Asia:
After the death of Alexander, the Satrapas appointed by him declared their independent status and they came to be known as Indo-Greek kings. During the declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in this period. These migrations proved to be important in the political scene in North India.

In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E., the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas (Scythians) attacked northwestern regions. The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were pastoralists. With the strength of their war skills, they vanquished the local kings and there they established their own kingdoms.

Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas:
Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In Indian tradition, they are mentioned as Yavana. Their objectives were to establish their dominance in the region of Mediterranean Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in west and central Asia.

Seleucus Nicator was Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria in the North-west. In the conflicts between the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria proved to be powerful. Bactrian king, Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He won over Takshashila. His capital was at Sakai (Siyalkot).

Shakas: Shakas came from Central Asia. They established their kingdom by driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’ (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first Shaka king in India. He established the kingdom by conquering the provinces of Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava King, Gondophernes defeated them and established his rule in India.

Kushanas: After coming to Bactria from Central Asia, the Kushanas captured the Indo-Greek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact with the Greek is reflected in some traits of Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out to the South, under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together and Kujula Kadphises brought them to northwest India from the Hindukush mountains. He declared himself as the King of Bactria.

Kushana Empire: After winning over the small kingdoms, Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and established their Satrapis there. A military officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was appointed on the satrapies. The King was the chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The concept of divinity of the King is seen for the first time in the inscriptions on the Kushana coins. They called themselves as ‘Devputra’(Son of God).

Gupta Empire: The history of Gupta empire indicates the process of transformation of a small state into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’ indicates that he was a feudatory. His son Ghatotkach also uses the same title which means during his period also the Gupta kings were feudatories.

Chandragupta I is given the credit of expanding the Gupta rule and transforming it into an empire. The title added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’, gives an idea of the increasing status of the Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This matrimonial alliance proved to be politically beneficial for the Gupta dynasty.

State administration and social life: The Gupta period is considered as the Classical Age of Indian history. During the Gupta period, king was the centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya (ministers) and advisors helped him. Many times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy who looked after the provincial administration. Every province was subdivided. These subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’.

There was an independent administrator appointed on these Vishayas. They were known as ‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the provincial officers and Ayuktak’ were the officials who looked after the affairs of the districts. Gupta administration was decentralized. Many decisions were taken at the local level.

Vardhan Empire: During the declining period of the Guptas, in Northern India, there was rise of dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar (Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna Doab, Maitrakas in Saurashtra etc. Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan dynasty. After the accession of Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty became powerful. He took up the sovereign title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’. The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhan.

His empire extended from Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to the throne under the situation. The empire disintegrated and many feudatories declared independent status in North India.

Karkotaka Empire: Among the dynasties that ruled in Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had been to Kashmir when he had visited India. Detailed information regarding this dynasty is found in Kalhan’s Rajatarangini. Durlabhavardhan was the founder of Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended from Narmada to Tibet.

The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed, 724-760 C.E.), the grandson of Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya). He drove away many foreign tribes on the northern borders of Kashmir, especially the region in the Amudarya basin.

Trade, coinage, art, iconography: In Indian history, the period of six centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th century C.E. was the period of arrival of the Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that they established. These people adopted various cultural traits as they came to India.

The introduction of these traits brought about a transformation in the cultural life of India as well. In contemporary India, agriculture and animal husbandry were the main sources of livelihood. Along with it, various industries and trade developed during this period. India’s contact with the foreigners proved to be beneficial for this.

Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres in Maharashtra): The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in Greek language in the mid 1st century C.E., mentions about the Red Sea and the sea routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces, goods exchanged in trade.

Red Sea was important for trade relations between India and Rome. The flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to several markets and cities. There was rise of important ports in western India as well. The merchandise transported to Maharashtra were stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur, and Sannati.

Glossary:

→ Tilling – Prepare and cultivate(land) for crops.

→ Merchandise – Goods that are for sale.

→ Garom – Pickled fish.

→ Migration – Movement of people from one place to another.

→ Dominance – The action of taking control.

→ Suzerainty – The right of a region to partly control another.

→ Autonomy – A right to governor control.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India

Rise of Mahajanpadas:
By 600 B.C.E. sixteen Mahajanapadas were established in India, from the northwest region to Magadha. Conquering other Janapadas and annexing their territory permanently to one’s own, became a regular practice in the times of Mahajanapadas. Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the creation of the large empire like Magadha. Ancient India once again witnessed the rise of cities. This process is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada:
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas or Assak is identified with the region of present-day Maharashtra. Ashmaka/Assaka was the only Mahajanapada that was situated in the region known as ‘Dakshinapatha’. Remaining fifteen Mahajanapadas were in north India. Suttanipata describes the region of Dakshinapatha in great details. It was the region of an important trading route.

Second Urbanisation in India:
The Janapadas with definite geographic borders and administrative system were established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The ambition to expand geographic boundaries and the political conflict caused by it left some Janapadas more powerful than others.

It resulted into the creation of sixteen Mahajanapada from Afghanistan in the northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching to the banks of the Godavari in the south. The capital cities of the Mahajanapadas and some other cities, which flourished because of prospering trade once again brought the age of urbanisation in India. It is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Mahajanapadas and The Contemporary Cities:
Kasi: This Mahajanapada was a powerful one in the beginning of the Mahajanapada period. Varanasi was its capital. The kings of Kasi were ambitious. According to the jataka stories they aspired for the highest position among all contemporary kings (Sabbarajunam aggaraja).

Kosala: Ancient Kosala encompassed the regions of Uttar Pradesh in India and Lumbini in Nepal. Sharavasti was its capital city. King Prasenjit (Pasenadi) was a disciple of Gautama Buddha. Kosala was destroyed and annexed permanently to Magadha by King Ajatashatru.

Anga: The city of Champa was the capital of Anga. It was a centre of the marine trade. It was permanently annexed to Magadha by King Bimbisara.

Magadha: Magadha had its first capital at the city of Girivraja, also known as Rajagriha. Girivraja was surrounded by five hills making it formidable for the enemies. King Bimbisara was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The policy of territorial annexation of other kingdoms was started during the reign of Kind Bimbisara.

Vrujji/Vajji: This was a confederation of eight clans, known as ‘Maha Aththkula’. It included clans like Videha, Lichchhavi, Vajji, Shakya, Dnyatruk, etc. The ‘Ekapanna Jataka’ mentions that Vaishali, the capital of this Mahajanapada. was fortified with three surrounding walls. It had three entrance gates and bastions.

Malla: The city of Kushinara or Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhpur district was the capital of this Mahajanapada. Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana chaitye TamraPatra iti”. By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla Mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya empire.

Chedi: This Mahajanapada had occupied Bundelkhand and the region around it. The city of Shuktimati or Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar Pradesh.

Vamsha or Vatsa: Kaushambi was the capital (Kosam near Allahabad) of this Mahajanapada. According to the tradition of Purana texts. Hastinapur was destroyed by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by Bhasa is KingUdayan. He was the king of the Vatsa Mahajanapada and the contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

Kuru: The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Delhi. Its name was Indraprastha or Indrapattana. According to the Jataka literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra.

Panchala: The Mahajanapada of Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north) Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala. The river Bhagirathi was the natural boundary that divided the Mahajanapada Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala was located near the village of Ramanagar, district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya, present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of Dakshina Panchala.

Matsya: The capital of this Mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat is one of the places where Ashokan edicts have been found.

Shoorasena: This Mahajanapada was located on the bank of the river Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura. Greek historians have mentioned the name of the Mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the Mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged into the Maurya empire.

Ashmak/Assak: We have seen earlier that Potali was the capital of Ashmak Mahajanapada and probably it was a feudatory state of Kashi maha janapada.

Avanti: This Mahajanapada encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad and its neighbouring regions in Madhya Pradesh. Avanti Mahajanapada was divided into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti. Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata, District Khandwa) was the capital of Dakshina Avanti.

Gandhara: This Mahajanapada had spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. He had established diplomatic relations with King Bimbisara.

Kamboja: This Mahajanapada is mentioned in the ancient literature along with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its capital. Kamboja was well-known for its excellent horses and its horsemen warriors for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people had resisted Sinkandara’s advent.

Mahajanapadas: Administrative System, Guilds
Administrative System: They were ‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’, ‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and ‘Parmeshthyi’. It is difficult to define these terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the term Rajya and Saamrajya in the context of sacrificial system.

According to it, the king who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’ performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’ under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’.

Guilds (Shrenis): Along with agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and systematic management and organisation of the trade are also essential factors for the prosperity of a state. The guilds of the merchants and the artisans played a great role in the growth of the Mahajanapadas into wealthy states.

These ‘ guilds had their own way of organisation and functioning. Guilds had their own, strict rules. Hence, they had a stringent structure. This stringent structure is perceived as one of the main reasons of the rise of the caste system.

Philosophy and Various Sects: At the end of the Vedic period questions about abstract aspects of human existence began to gain attention. It included questions about matters like the meaning of human life, its significance in the infinite nature of the universe, the mystery of death and the journey of the soul after death. It resulted in the creation of various philosophical texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’.

The latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’ school, which openly opposed the social organisation based on the Vedic authority, beliefs and rituals. This school also propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only those things, which are subject to sensory experience.

The 6th century B.C.E. is important from this point of view. The rising of a class of wandering mendicants known as ‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was characteristic of this period. They renounced the householder’s life and wandered with their disciples, in search of the ultimate truth. Among the various streams of thoughts, a large number of people were attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

New Religious Trends:
Jainism: The Jain religion has a tradition going back to very ancient times. According to the tradition of Jain religion, Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the last ‘Tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd Tirthankara. He gave four vows of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya) and non-possession (Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy (Brahmacharya) to it.

These five vows are known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. Mahavira founded the Jain Sangha. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya was a contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth principal Acharya of the Jain Sangha. According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta Maurya had embraced Jain religion. Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’ clan.

His mother, Trishaladevi was from the Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda. Vardhamana Mahavira addressed people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of common people. He preached about good behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to the five vows).

Buddhism: Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries. Gautama Buddha was horn in 563 B.C.E., in Lumbini Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s name was Shuddhodana. Ile was a member of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from the Koliya clan. Gautama Buddha’s wife was Yashodhara. Gautama Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge through various means, such as seeking guidance from various gurus and extreme austerities.

After realising that nothing of it was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya, under a peepal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the bank of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. After that he was known as ‘Buddha’, ‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyarnuni’.

Gautama Buddha preached four ‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths).

1. There is Sorrow (Dukkha) everywhere in the world.
2. The root cause of sorrow is Greed (Trishna).
3. To conquer this greed is the way to cut the sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha).
4. The way to stop sorrow from emerging is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga).

Glossary:

→ Protagonist – The main character in a play, film or book.

→ Satrapy – A province governed by a satrap.

→ Guilds – A medieval association of craftsmen or merchants often having considerable powder.

→ Pluralism – A condition or system in which two or more principles or states coexist.

→ Trisaran – Refers to the ‘Triratnas’ of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management

→ Natural disasters have caused widespread loss of life and property.

Types of Disasters (Based on Origin)

Tectonic:

• Earthquakes
• Volcanic
• eruption
• Tsunamis

Geological:

• Landslides
• Mudslides
• Avalanches

Meteorological:

• Floods
• Cyclones
• Storms
• Heatwaves

Biological:

• Locust attacks
• Pest attacks
• Epidemics (flu, dengue, cholera, etc.

Arthropogenic/Man-made

• Industrial accidents
• Transportation accidents
• Nuclear accidents

→ Natural events that occur in nature and cannot be prevented are called hazards. When they occur in areas inhabited by humans and cause damage, they are termed as disasters.

Hazards :

• Hazards are phenomena that pose a threat to people, structural or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.
• They could be either naturally occurring in the environment or man-made.
• A hazard becomes a disaster when it affects human population, settlements and their activities.

Vulnerability :

• The geographical conditions and circumstances of people or region that make them susceptible to a disaster is known as vulnerability. Hence, if we are better prepared, we can reduce the risk of getting affected by disaster.
• Population living in certain areas are exposed to particular disasters.

Also, social, economic and political conditions may make people less or more likely to be affected by disasters, in the same region.

Example :

• The poor are more likely to be affected by disasters.
• Old people and children easily become victims of disasters.
• Densely populated areas more likely to be affected than sparsely populated areas.

Capacity to Cope :

• The ability of people, organisations and systems, using available skills and resources, to face and
  manage disasters is known as their capacity to cope. ,
• Vulnerability is reduced if capacity to cope with the disaster is high.

Effects of Disasters:

Effects of Disasters –

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary

1. Primary

• Occur as a result of the disaster itself

damage during a flood or an earthquake

2. Secondary:
Occur because of primary effects

• Fire ignited
• Disruption of electric power
• Water service as a result of earthquake

3. Tertiary
Long term effects are a result of primary and secondary effects

• Loss of homes
• Permanent changes in the position of river channel
• Storms
• Adverse effect on tourism in an earthquake-affected area

Disaster Management:
Disaster Management Disasters:

1. Preventable

• Gas leakage
• Rail accident

2. Non-preventable

• Volcanic eruptions
• Tsunamis
• Earthquakes (effect can be reduced)

3. Predictable

• Cyclones
• Floods

Disaster Management involves the following processes –

• Creating awareness about disasters.
• Taking steps to reduce its effects
• Evaluating the damage caused by the disasters providing relief, food and medical aid in affected areas involve many people, organisations and processes.

Disaster Management Tasks:

Disaster management tries to :

• Reduce risk to damages or losses.
• Focus on the hazard that causes the disaster.
• Attempt to minimize the adverse impact of the disaster on communities.
• Involve co-ordination from governments, local self-governments, police, military and para¬military forces, NGOs, doctors, scientists, planners, volunteers, groups or communities.

Disaster Management Cycle :

• Disaster Prevention → Disaster Mitigation → Disaster Preparedness.
• Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance to face disasters in future.

Disaster Preparedness :
It involves measures taken to prepare for and reduce effect of disasters.

Disasters Preparedness:

1. Carrying out awareness campaigns
2. Strengthening of the weak structures
3. Preparing plans for households
4. Preparing plans at community level

Mitigation :

• Mitigation is any measure taken to minimize the impact of a disaster before it occurs is known.
• It refers to action taken against potential disasters.
• It is carried out for those disasters which cannot be prevented.
• It helps the people by creating safer communities and reducing loss of life and property.

Mitigation Measures:

1. Community level disaster planning
2. Public awareness and information campaigns
3. Preparedness of hospitals
4. Construction of houses away from hazardous areas.

Mitigation Efforsts:

Structural Efforts:

• Construction of river embankments
• Strengthening existing buildings

Non-structural Efforts:

• Areas training in disaster management
• Regulating land-use
• Public education

Disaster Response :

• It is the way the community responds to the disaster.
• It reflects the preparedness of the community.
• It is the immediate period after the disaster strikes.
• It is concerned with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal condition and providing financial support.

Recovery :
These steps involve measures taken to bring life back to normal in affected areas.

Recovery:

• Restoration of basics services and repair of physical, social and economic damages
• Cleaning of debris
• Rebuilding roads and bridges
• Providing sustained medical care for displaced human and animal population

Rehabilitation :

• It is the last phase of disaster management.
• It involves :
  • Efforts taken to restore normalcy in the long term.
  • Providing housing to the affected, taking important decisions regarding economy, agriculture, etc., which have been affected by disasters.

Role of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS in Disaster Management:

Remote Sensing :

• Remote sensing is very effective in mapping disaster prone areas, particularly flood – affected areas.
• Microwave data – Provides information on flood-inundated areas.
• Remote sensing satellites monitor the path of a cyclone.
• It can provide ample time with warning for evacuation and preparedness in advance.
• Data obtained from meteorological satellites is used for cyclone tracking, intensity and landfall predictions and forecasting of extreme weather events.
• Data from earth observation satellites is used for monitoring disaster events and assessing
  the damages. ,
• Communication satellites help to establish communication in remote and inaccessible areas.
  Navigation satellites are used for providing location-based services.

GPS (Global Positioning System): It is an important tool.

GIS:

• It has emerged as an important methodological tool for effective planning, communication and training in the various stages of the disaster management cycle.
• Plays a vital role in determining the extent of hazards and disasters.
• These techniques help in making planning and policy very easy for implementation.

Disaster Management in India :
Need : India’s geo-climatic conditions and its high degree of socio-economic vulnerability makes it one of the most disaster-prone country in the world.

Steps taken to mitigate the damage potential of national disasters in future at the Government of India level, two institutes were set up in New Delhi.

• The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been established at the centre.
• SDMA has been established at the state level.
• District Authorities at District level.
• National Crisis Management Committee also functions at the centre.
• Ministry for Agriculture – For disasters like drought.
• Military forces, para-military forces such as Home Guard.
• ISRO, NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) also play an important role in disaster management.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State

Introduction:
In this chapter, we shall cover the following political concepts –
(i) Nation and Nationalism (ii) State and Government.
The terms ‘state’, ‘nation’, ‘government’ appear to have the same meaning and are often used interchangeably. However, technically there is a difference in the meaning of these terms.

A Nation has a sense of ‘oneness’ that is psychological and is born out of commonness of ethnicity and race, culture and history, religion, language, etc. A State is a politically organized society within a definite territory. It is used to describe a sovereign country having an independent government in specific territory.

Nation:
Meaning: The word ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Nasci’ meaning ‘to be born’. Thus, the literal meaning of a nation is a people having a common race /ethnicity or cultural linkages.

Ernest Barker defines a nation as a body of men, inhabiting a definite territory, who normally are drawn from different races but possess a common stock of thoughts and feelings acquired and transmitted during the course of common history.

A nation refers to a large group of people, united in common bonds of geography, race, history, religion, language, sharing common objectives.

Features Of A Nation:

• Population: A nation must have a population that has a sense of ethnic, historical and cultural oneness.
• Feeling of community: The emotional dimension of a nation is a perception held by the population of psychological oneness i.e., they are a community.
• Desire to be politically separate: A feeling of unity and of being a nation is a product of the urge for ‘self-determination’. This can lead to a demand for self-governance. This signifies that people who feel united should have the right to decide the type of government that they prefer.

Nationalism:
Meaning: Nationalism is a force which binds the people to a sense of integrity and loyalty to their country. It is a spirit of oneness or common consciousness that binds a community together. Nationalism is a sense of political identity and emotional attachment to one’s ’homeland’.

Features Of Nationalism:

• Nationalism can be productive i.e., Progressive nationalism e.g., India’s freedom struggle or destructive i.e., Aggressive nationalism e.g., in Nazi Germany.
• Nationalism opposes imperialism and colonialism and thus encourages self-determination. Liberation /Freedom struggles all over the world are in resistance to foreign rule or any tyranny.
• Nationalism can help to promote diversity. The core of Indian nationalism is the idea of ‘unity in diversity in respect of religion, region, caste, language, etc.

Forms Of Nationalism:
The forms of nationalism from a political perspective are:

• Liberal Nationalism: Its origins are in the ideals of the French Revolution. President Woodrow Wilson linked the concept of a nation to the right to self-determination and sovereignty.
• Conservative Nationalism: It views a nation as a closely linked society with great importance to patriotism and the concept of ‘motherland’.
• Expansionist Nationalism: It is aggressive nationalism, which leads to imperialism, conquest and colonialism. It was seen in European imperialism by countries like England, Italy, Spain, France, etc.
• Anticolonial Nationalism: It refers to liberation struggles for independence from colonial rule, e.g., Indian or Indonesian freedom struggles from British and Dutch colonialism respectively.

The State:
The urge for political self-determination leads a nation toward statehood. A State is a political community which plays a role in almost every human activity like education, law and order, social welfare, etc.

Meaning of a State: Woodrow Wilson (USA) defined ‘a state is a people organised for law within a definite territory. A state is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent from external control and possessing an organized government to which the inhabitants render habitual obedience.

Elements of a State: The modern State has four essential elements.

Population: A State is an association of human beings. The progress of a state depends on the quality of population. Some states viz. China, India, etc. have a large population while some states have a small population viz. Monaco, Belgium, etc., The population may be homogeneous or diverse for e.g., USSR comprised of many nationalities like Russians, Ukrainians, Latvians, etc. Thus a ‘State’ may comprise of many ‘nations’.

Territory: A State is recognized by its territory. This includes the land area within its boundaries, airspace above the area and surrounding territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles). The area within which the State has the authority to govern is called its jurisdiction.

Some States have small territory e.g., Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives, etc., while other States e.g., Brazil, Russia, India, Australia have a large territory. Most States have compact territory e.g., India, while some states have a scattered territory e.g., Great Britain.

Government: This refers to the agency through which the will of the State is expressed. Modern governments have three organs viz. legislature, executive and judiciary. The Government must be independent. Institutions of the state are ‘public’ institutions and have legitimacy to act on behalf of the State.

These institutions are responsible for making and implementing laws to promote the general welfare of the people. There are various kinds of government based on their creation or style of functioning for e.g., democracy/ dictatorship, republic/monarchy, presidential/parliamentary, etc.

Sovereignty: It signifies the supreme power of the State internally as well as externally. It means an independent nation with its own constitution.

State And Government:
The government is an essential element of the State which is composed of a limited number of elected or nominated persons. It derives its power from the State. Its nature is administrative. A State cannot function in the absence of a government.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Rural Development in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Rural Development in India

→ Meaning Of Rural Development:

• Leads to economic growth of a country.
• It is a ‘subset’ of term “development”.
• Relates to overall development and improvement in quality of life
• It should be sustainable, in order to remove poverty from any country.

→ Definition of Rural Development:

World Bank defines :
“Rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people – the rural poor. Rural development involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those, who seek livelihood in the rural areas. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless’’.

→ Features of Rural Development:

(A) Agriculture:

• Mecha nisation
• High Yielding Seeds
• Credit and Transport
• Marketing

(B) Village Industries:

• Modernization
• Technica’ training
• Marketing

(C) Education

• Technical
• Skill
• Agricultural

(D) Services

• Health
• Family Welfare
• Banking
• Communication

→ Rural Occupational Structure:

(A) Agricultural Sector
(B) Indrustrial Sector
(C) Services Sector (Tertiary Sector)

(A) Agricultural Sector

1. Agriculture
2. Allied Activities

1. Agriculture

• Small farmers
• Marginal farmers
• Large farmers

Allied Activities:
Plantation, forestry, fisheries, dairy, horticulture

(B) Indrustrial Sector:

• Small scale Industries
• Cottage Industries
• Rural Industries

(C) Services Sector (Tertiary Sector):

1. Traders
2. Transport
3. Proffessional and Technicians

Traders:

• Wholesaler
• Retailer

→ Classification or Types of Agricultural Credit:

→ Sources of Agricultural Credit:

(A) Non-Institutional Sources
(B) Institutional Sources

(A) NON-INSTITUTIONAL Sources

1. Money-Lenders
2. Other Private Sources
   • Other Private Sources:
   • Traders, landlords, commission agents, etc.
   • Loan from relatives, friends, etc.

(B) Institutional Sources:

1. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
2. Rural Co-operative Credit Institutions
3. Commercial Banks (CB’s)
4. Regional Rural Banks (RRB’s)
5. Micro Finance Institutions (MFI’s)

Rural Co-operative Credit Institutions

• Short-term Credit Co-operatives
• Long-term Credit Co-operatives

Short-term Credit Co-operatives:

• Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)
• District Central Co-operative Banks (ÐCCB)
• State Co-operative Banks (SCB)

Long-term Credit Co-operatives:

• Primary Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks.
• State Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks.

→ Significance or Importance of Rural Development in India :

• Public health and sanitation
• Literacy rate
• Empowerment of women
• Enforcement of law and order
• Land reforms
• Infrastructure development
• Availability of credit
• Eradication of poverty

Word Meaning:

predominantly – mainly, rural – village area, subset – part of a larger group, connotes – suggest, consensus – general opinion, alleviate – to reduce, strategy – planning, tenants – a person who occupies land or property on rental basis, marginal – very small, cottage – industry carried out in people’s home, witnessed – to see, affordable – reasonable price, instrument – a tool, gender disparity – not having equal rights for male and female, safeguard – protect, enforcement – carrying out, ceiling – limitation, connectivity – to link, eradication – to remove, pre-requisite – requirement, inadequate – not sufficient, tenure – time period, unproductive – not able to use in productive activity, collateral security – asset kept against loan, prevalent – spread, mortgage – to keep asset against the loan, promotion – to support, consequent – as follows, inflexibility – not able to change, legitimate – allowed by law.