Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology

Introduction:

• Psychology is an important science in modern times.
• The scope of Psychology is getting wider with the emergence of new branches.
• Today, there are more than 50 branches of Psychology that help to study human behaviour from different angles.

Branches of psychology:

• Two broad areas of Psychology are Theoretical branches and Applied branches.
• In theoretical branches, psychologists concentrate on carrying out research and forming theories while applied branches help individuals to use the knowledge gained from research to solve their real-life problems.
• The extremely vast scope of psychology has led to development of many subfields.

Theoretical Branches:

• Developmental Psychology studies changes in behaviour from conception to death.
• Child Psychology studies biological, psychological and emotional changes in childhood.
• Social Psychology studies how a person influences people and gets influenced by them.
• Cognitive Psychology concentrates on higher mental processes like thinking and reasoning.
• Experimental Psychology attempts to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour.
• Abnormal Psychology studies unusual patterns of behaviour, emotions and thinking.

Applied Branches:

• Educational Psychology studies all factors related to education.
• Clinical Psychology studies diagnoses and treats emotional and behavioural problems.
• Counseling Psychology deals with milder behavioural problems.
• Criminal Psychology deals with motives behind criminal behaviour.
• Sports Psychology helps sportspersons to maintain their motivation and stamina.
• Industrial Psychology is concerned with the behaviour of people working in an organisation.

Careers in psychology:

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1 students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1

→ After independence, India has made advancements in various fields, especially after 1990. India emerges as a strong country at international forum. In this chapter, we are going to study the advancement made by India in different fields.

Globalisation:

→ India adopted the policy of liberalisation in 1990, since then many changes took place in trade and commerce.

→ Many countries with a view to protect their home market imposed various duties on imported goods so to discuss this problem a meeting was called in Cuba which was attended by 56 nations.

→ The first multinational trade agreement was signed by 23 nations at Geneva known as GATT.

World Trade Organisation (WTO):

1. Nearly 123 nations came together and found an organisation on 1st January 1995 with an objective of opening the world for free trade known as WTO.
2. The Director-General of WTO, Arthur Dunkel prepared a draft known as ‘Dunkel Draft’ which emphasises on trade, free from governmental custom duty and other restrictions. This policy is known as liberalisation.
3. WTO published a report on 2006 which mentioned India’s increasing economic growth.

Transformation in various field:
Transformation of a nation can be discerned through certain indicators. Transformation has taken place in various fields.

Rural Development Plans:

→ Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana: This plan was started on 2nd October 1993 for creating opportunities for job and private enterprise.

→ Rojgar Hami Yojana: Started on 2nd October 1993 to assure daily wages to the unemployed agricultural labourers.

→  In 2001, this plan was merged in Gramin Rojgar Yojana.

→  To provide support to farmers in difficult times ‘Kisan Credit Card’ plan was started.

→  Suvarnajayanti Gramin Swayam Rojgar Yojana: This plan was launched in 1999 by merging various plans together.

→ Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana: This plan was implemented in 1999 to provide employment to the unemployed men and women.

→  Later it was merged into ‘Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana’.

→ Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana: Started by merging together Rojgar Aashwasan Yojana and Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana for creating employment opportunities in rural areas.

→  This plan was merged in Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana.

→ Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana: Under this scheme each family in rural areas was given 100 day’s work.

→  Agriculture and Livestock: Agriculture and agro related sector were given importance.

→ Soil Health Card Scheme aims at increasing soil fertility.

→  Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchan Yojana given importance to irrigation.

→ Krishi Vikas Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Vima Yojana implemented for economic welfare of farmers.

→  In 2007, national policy for farmers was adopted.

→ Pradhan Mantri Peek Vima Yojana was introduced if crop failure was there.

→ Agricultural exhibitions are organised through Indian Council for Agricultural Research.

→ Goat keeping or sheli plan is encouraged.

→ ‘National Livestock Mission’ was established in 2014.

→ Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Started in 2000 with a purpose of building roads and linking the villages.

Urban Development Plans:

→ Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (Jnnurm): Started in 2005 with aim of massive modernisation of cities through road building, public transport, wastewater disposal and other management schemes.

→ Golden Quadrilateral (Suvarna Chatushkon Yojana): Started in 1998 with an aim of creating national highway network to join the four megacities – Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkatta.

→ Metro Railway: Flagged off in 2002 in Delhi.

Means of Communication:

Postal department:

→ Indian Postal Department was established in 1766 by British.

→ The postal department has introduced various schemes such as Postal Saving Account, Term Deposit, Public Provident Fund, Kisan Vikas Patra, Sukanya Samruddhi Yojana.

→ Post Offices were brought under core banking solutions, ATMs were installed and also provided services to non-resident Indians.

→ Speed post: changed the very nature of Indian postal service.

Economic issues:

→ Ministry of Disinvestment: It was established by Government of India to take care of its disinvestment policy. Focuses on reducing disinvestment in sectors like mining, petroleum, refineries etc.

→ The policy of privatisation, Liberalisation and Globalisation are popularly known as KHAUJA boosted the confidence of Indian companies.

→ It was renamed as Department of Investment in 2016.

→ BRICS: Established in 2006 with an aim of enhancing the trade among the participant countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

Science and Technology.

• A super-computer named Param-8000 was created.
• In 1998, an advanced version of Param-8000 was created and named as Param-10000.
• In 2003, Parampadma Super Computer was dedicated to nation.
• In 2004, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) was the biggest firm in Asia providing software services.
• In 2000, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was established to provide services like cellular phones, internet and broadband.

Space research:

1. In 2007, India launched Italian satellite and entered in a new field of space research.
2. In 2008, India launched Chandrayaan-1, the first lunar probe.
3. After that India launched Chandrayaan-2 and Mangalyaan.

Defence Affairs.

→ In 1999, Kargil war was fought between India and Pakistan when Pakistan intruded Kashmir. It is also referred to as ‘Operation Vijay’.

→ In 2009, India launched Strategic Strike Nuclear Submarine of Arihant class.

→ The Government of India emphasised on indigenous production by using indigenous technology (Make in India).

Youth related policies.

• In 1972, a number of centres of‘Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan’ were established.
• National Youth Empowerment Programme put a thrust on topics like literacy, education health and hygiene, family welfare etc.
• 12th January the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekanand is observed as ‘National Youth Day.
• Youth Hostels Association of India has established youth hostels in various parts of country.

Right to Information Act 2005.

1. This kind of act was first applied in Sweden in 1776.
2. In 1982, L.K. Kulwant first initiated the process by applying to know the Jaipur Municipal Corporation’s work for cleaning the city.
3. Aruna Rao started the movement ‘Majdoor Kisan Shakti Sanghatan’ in 1990.
4. The act was implemented in Maharashtra after a long struggle of Anna Hazare.

Reorganisation of States:
New states were formed in India

→  Chhattisgarh: Fazal Ali Commission rejected the demand. Later by the initiative of, Government of India the state of Chhattisgarh was created on 1st November 2000.

→  Uttarakhand: The demand of separate state of the people of Garhwal and Kumaon was supported by Indian National Congress. Uttarakhand Parvatiya Rajya Parishad was established for this purpose. Finally, in 2000 the state of Uttaranchal was created, which renamed as Uttarakhand.

→ Jharkhand: In 1947, All India Jharkhand Party was established for a demand of separate Jharkhand. The Bihar legislative assembly passed the bill in 2000 and the state of Jharkhand came into existence on 15th November 2000.

→  Telangana: Telangana Rashtriya Samiti started the movement for the creation of a separate Telangana. In 2014 this proposal was approved in the Parliament and the state of Telangana came into existence on 2nd June 2014.

→  Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh: Article 370 gave a special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

→  Recently in August 2019, Government of India revoked Article 370 and from 31st October the state of Jammu and Kashmir was reconstructed as two separate Union territories of Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh.

Glossary:

→ Liberalisation – The removal or loosening of restriction on something, typically an economic or political system

→ Globalisation – Is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies and government worldwide

→ Modernisation – The process of adapting something to modern needs or habits

→ Reorganisation – The action or process of changing the way in which something is organised.

→ Pisciculture — The controlled breeding and rearing of fish

→ Census – An official count or survey, especially of a population

→ Bureaucrats – Is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution of government

→ Oceanography – The branch of science which deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of the sea

→ Terrorism – The unlawful use of violence and intimidation especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims

→ Entrepreneur – A person who sets up a business, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit.

→ Co-operative – Involving mutual assistance in working towards a common goal Transformation A marked change in form, nature, or appearance.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes  Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders

Mental Health Continuum Model:
The major criteria of abnormality are deviance, personal distress and impaired functioning. Illness and absence of illness are not distinct categories but are on opposite poles of the continuum sequence as explained below.

Stage 1 – The person is physically and psychologically healthy. He/She is motivated and emotionally stable.

Stage 2 – The person may get affected by life stressors, feel anxious, lack energy, etc., for e.g., most students are tense before the exams. It is possible to push oneself back towards positive health by adopting a healthy lifestyle.

Stage 3 – The person shows signs of psychological damage and may experience negative feelings like sadness, lack of motivation, fear and may even indulge in addictive behaviour. However, even this stage is not irreversible.

Stage 4 – The person exhibits extreme distress, impairment in mental, emotional and social functioning. He/She needs professional treatment.

Criteria For Psychological Disorders:
According to DSM-5, there are five criteria for psychological disorders.

• Clinically significant syndrome – In psychological disorders, there should be a cluster of symptoms together i.e., a syndrome.
• Distress and Impairment – There should be distress, i.e., psychological pain due to negative feelings and stress, as well as impairment, i.e., inability to perform appropriate roles in personal and social situations.
• Dysfunction – If the symptoms lead to developmental or psychological dysfunctions, it signifies mental disorders.
• Responses to stressors that are normally accepted responses e.g., sadness experienced at the loss of a loved one or culturally sanctioned responses are not considered as signs of mental disorders.
• Behaviour which is only deviant but does not produce any disability or distress or dysfunction does not become a sign of mental disorder.

Mental Wellness:
According to the WHO, mental wellness refers to “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope up with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”

The important aspects of mental wellness are –

• Emotional aspect – There is a sense of well-being and contentment
• Psychological aspect – There is high self-esteem and tendency of self-actualization.
• Life philosophy – There are clear goals and objectives in life.

The Illness Wellness Continuum Model by John Travis:

Quadrant 1 – The person is in an ideal state of functioning.
Quadrant 2 – The person has no mental illness but experiences subjective feeling of unhappiness.
The person suffers from mental illness yet he/she experiences a high sense of subjective well-being.
This is the lowest level of functioning. The person has mental illness and also experiences distress.

Mental Disorders – Classification:
There are two major systems to classify psychological disorders.

1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) – DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) in 2013. It contains 22 broad categories of mental disorders with subcategories.
2. International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) – ICD-11
   was created by the WHO in 2019, according to which there are 19 broad categories of mental disorders.

Major Psychological Disorders:
Anxiety Disorders:
The word ‘anxiety’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Anxietas’ which means ‘uneasy or troubled mind’. Anxiety refers to a condition in which the person feels worried and uneasy for a long time for no obvious reasons.
The main anxiety disorders are:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:
The person frequently experiences anxiety more intensely so that it starts interfering with the ability to perform daily tasks. Symptoms include irritability, headaches, insomnia, dizziness, breathlessness, etc.

Phobic disorders:
The word ‘phobia’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Phobos which was used to refer to the God of Fear. A phobia is an intense, persistent but irrational and disproportionate fear of a specific object or situation. DSM classifies phobias as simple phobias, e.g., Acrophobia, Claustrophobia etc., and social phobias, e.g., fear of speaking or eating in public.

Depressive Disorders:
Depression is an emotional state typically marked by sadness and guilt, feelings of anxiety and hopelessness. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, interest and sleep, fatigue, sexual dysfunction and suicidal thoughts.

Bipolar Disorders:
Bipolar disorder is also known as Manic Depressive disorder. The person experiences alternate phases of two states viz. mania, i.e., extreme excitement and elation and depression, i.e., extreme irritability, hopelessness and sadness. Main causative factor are genetic factors and imbalance in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, epinephrine, etc.

Trauma And Stress-Related Disorders:
Stress is inevitable in life. Daily hassles, relationship issues, frustration, chronic illness, etc., lead to stress. If stress is in moderate intensity, it acts as a motivation. However, intense and prolonged stress impairs normal functioning of the individual and may lead to stress disorders.

The two types of stress disorders are –
Acute Stress Disorder (ASD):
If a person (aged 6 years and above) has experienced extremely stressful situations like death of a loved one, serious disease or injury, sexual abuse, natural disasters, etc., then he/she may experience ASD.

The symptoms of ASD include –

• emotional numbness and instability
• nightmares and sleep distturbances
• insomnia, lack of concentration, irritability and guilt feelings
• depression

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
If symptoms of ASD continue for more than one month with the same intensity, the person is diagnosed with PTSD.

A person who has suffered trauma generally goes through three stages viz.-

• Shock stage – the individual is in shock, i.e., extremely disturbed.
• Suggestible stage – he/she may seek guidance from others and may either accept these suggestions unquestioningly or may get extra sensitive.
• Recovery stage – the person shows signs of recovery.
  However, some persons still show signs of mental illness i.e., PTSD.

The symptoms of PTSD include –

• nightmares, flashbacks, severe anxiety
• hypervigilance and avoidance of situations that bring back the trauma
• irritability, social isolation
• survivor’s guilt.

Substance-Related And Addictive Disorders:
Addictive disorders refer to the physical and psychological inability to stop consuming some substance or indulging in some activity although it is harmful. This includes dependence on drugs, nicotine, alcohol, etc., or activities like gambling, eating, gaming, etc. Drug addiction refers to an inability to control the use of alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, marijuana, medications, etc.

Symptoms of addiction are –

• Excessive consumption of drugs or alcohol and inability to reduce the dosage.
• In case the person tries to stop the drug use, then withdrawal symptoms occur which include sweating, tremors, muscle pain, goosebumps, etc.
• Physical and psychological dependence may lead to drug abuse or overdose of the addictive substance and even cause the death of the person.
• The person’s physical, emotional, social and financial well-being breakdown. Alcoholics
  Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) are organizations that help addicts to overcome dependence.

Schizophrenia:
The term ‘Schizophrenia’ is derived from Greek words Schizein (to split) and phren (mind). It was coined in 1911 by a Swiss psychologist, Paul Eugene Bleuler. Thus, the literal meaning of the word ‘schizophrenia’ is split mind. It is a psychotic disorder.

According to DSM-5 the two types of symptoms for schizophrenia are:

• Positive symptoms,
• Negative symptoms.

Positive symptoms are an excess addition to normal thoughts or behaviour of the period. Such symptoms are –

• hallucinations – mainly auditory and visual hallucination
• delusions – mainly of grandeur, reference and persecution
• disorganized thought and speech
• bizarre body movements and disorganized behaviour
• incongruent affect.

Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of thought processes. They lead to low level of functioning and may not improve much even with treatment.

This includes –

• emotional blunting – diminished emotional expression
• anhedonia – inability to experience deep positive emotions
• alogia – diminished speed
• asociality – lack of desire to form relationships
• avolition – lack of motivation
• apathy.

Sometimes, a schizophrenic exhibits positive as well as negative symptoms.

Treating Psychological Disorders:
Signs that help to identify individuals who require expert (professional) help in mental health are called ‘red flags’. Symptoms, if present, in any person should satisfy three requirements

1. it should be present for a considerably long period of time
2. symptom has become more severe than before
3. it has created problems in the person’s life.

The signals indicating a need for professional help are:

• inability to concentrate or to sleep well.
• severe confusion and memory loss.
• intense and uncontrollable negative feelings.
• self-neglect or even self-harm.
• loss of interest in friends/ family/ activities.
• odd statements or strange use of words.

Treatment strategies range form pharmacotherapy (administering drugs) to psychotherapy such as Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, Interpersonal Therapy, Group/Family Therapy, etc. Mental heath professionals are qualified to decide the plan of treatment.

Glossary:

→ Anxiety – A state in which the feelings of an individual experience of uneasiness and worry and tends to anticipate that there will be danger or failure in the future.

→ Delusion – A false belief that is strongly held by an individual even in the presence of contradictory evidence

→ Depression – A state of experiencing sadness, pessimism, loss of interest in activities that previously were enjoyable along with physical, cognitive and behavioural changes.

→ Distress – A negative emotional state indicating worry.

→ DSM-5 – The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013: it is a widely used manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Dysfunction – Any impairment or disturbance leading to abnormality in behaviours or functioning.

→ Hallucination – It is a false visual/auditory perception that occurs in the absence of appropriate stimuli.

→ ICD- 11 – The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems issued by the World Health Organisation (WHO) consisting of a manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Mental Health – It is a state of mind that is characterised by emotional well being, good adjustment and ability to cope with the demands and stresses of daily living.

→ Stigma – A negative social attitude which is associated with individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder and often leads to social disapproval, discrimination and exclusion of that individual in society.

→ Alcoholics Anonymous – It is an international, nonprofessional, self-supporting, mutual aid fellowship started by Bill Wilson and Bob Smith in 1935 in the USA. Its stated purpose is to enable its members to stop drinking and stay sober. It has a 12 step programme to help stop alcohol abuse and recover from alcoholism.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Contemporary India: Good Governance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Contemporary India: Good Governance

Introduction

→ Meaning of Governance: In development administration, not only the government but also citizens and NGO’s play a vital role. The term ‘governance’ is used to describe this cooperative effort of the government and non-governmental bodies in public administration.

Governance is broader than government as :

→ It includes formal institutions of government e.g., legislature, bureaucracy as well as informal institutions e.g. NGO’s.

→ It aims to improve the performance of public institutions with focus on values like accountability, transparency, citizen feedback, etc.

In the 1990s several changes took place in the world:

→ Globalisation of the world economy – This included technological revolution, growth of social networking and transparency in the administrative system. There were changes in international economic relations due to which investment and trade and commerce became important.

→ International Institutions – International funding agencies like IMF, World Bank, UNDP have become influential in bringing about administrative reforms in Third World Nations.

→ Non-State actors – NGO’s, private sector organizations, civil society have started to play a greater role in public administration.

Meaning Of Good Governance:

The Good Governance approach aims at the following.

• to reform the traditional, huge-sized public administration which was riddled with red tape and corruption.
• to replace the archaic systems with responsible, participative and equitable systems.
• to look at interlinkages between government and civil society.
• to make the administration citizen-centred and not merely rule-bound.

Value Of Good Governance

→ Participation – The effective functioning of any democratic system requires that people get an opportunity to participate in the process of decision making and its implementation.

→  Rule of law -The constitution and law of the land is a core value of good governance. It ensures a just and fair polity where rights of citizens are safeguarded.

→ Effectiveness and efficiency – All processes and institutions must produce results that meet the needs of society but also making sustainable use of natural resources and protecting the environment.

→ Consensus oriented – Good governance requires dialogue between various sections of society to reach consensus on what is best for the entire community and how to achieve it. It requires a long-term perspective on how to best achieve the goals of sustainable human development.

→ Responsiveness – The government must be prompt and sensitive while designing policies to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

→ Equity and inclusiveness – No stakeholder, especially the vulnerable should feel excluded from the mainstream of society. All persons should have opportunities to improve their well-being.

→  Transparency – This value of good governance enables people to keep the government under scrutiny for e.g. Right to Information Act (2005) provides citizens access to information about public policies and actions

→ Accountability: This cannot be enforced without the rule of law and transparency. Any organization is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions and actions, i.e., to stakeholders. Governmental institutions, private sector and civil society institutions must be accountable

Initiatives For Good Governance In India:
After independence, India adopted a socialist model of development which aimed at achieving a Welfare State. The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances looks after administrative reforms in India.

Its objectives are –

• to promote administrative reforms in government policies and processes.
• to promote citizen-centric governance.
• to conduct innovations in e-governance.

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) was set up in 2005 to prepare a blueprint for revamping the public administration system in India.

It looked at the following issues

• To make public administration accountable, transparent, efficient, responsive and result-oriented.
• Citizen centric, participative administration.

Reform measures/initiatives for administration include:

• Simplifying administrative procedures, using technology to improve internal efficiency and reducing regulatory control.
• Enacting laws giving certain rights to citizens and setting up institutional mechanisms to
  redress grievances.

Specific Programmes To Bring About Good Governance In India:

Lokpal and Lokayukta: The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013) provides for the establishment of Lokpal (at the Union level) and Lokayuktas (in the States) to inquire into allegations of corruption against public officials. This is a commitment to a responsive, clean governance. The Maharashtra Lokayukta Institution came into being in 1972.

Citizen’s Charters: The exercise to formulate Citizen’s Charters began in 1996. Each organisation must spell out the services it has to perform and the standards/norms for these services. If these standards are not met then, that agency can be held accountable.

E-Governance: In the last few decades, governance has become more complex and varied. Citizens expectations from the government have also increased. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is used in governance. This is called ‘e-governance’.

It helps in

• instant transmission and processing information and efficient storing and retrieval of data.
• increasing the reach of government both geographically and demographically.
• speeding up decision making and increasing transparency and accountability of government processes.

E-governance in India has evolved from computerisation of departments to initiatives which are citizen-centric and service-oriented.

Six Pillars For Achieving The Vision Of E-Governance

Right to Information: It is a basic necessity of good governance which enables citizens to seek important public information from the government i.e., about public policies and actions. Transparency in government institutions makes them function more objectively and enables citizens to participate effectively in the governance process.

Citizen participation: Citizen participation refers to the following aspects.

→ The development process is a “bottom-up” approach in which citizens are not recipients but participants in this process.

→ Citizens have a right in making decisions pertaining to themselves.

→ There are modalities by which citizens can take control of resources or influence decision making.

→ It contributes to a responsive, participative democracy.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Contemporary India: Challenges to Peace, Stability and National Integration students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Contemporary India: Challenges to Peace, Stability and National Integration

Introduction:
Meaning of national integration:
Public order, peace, and stability are crucial requirements for the political, economic, and socio-cultural development of a State. The primary function of the State is maintenance law and order towards the process of national integration.

The role of the State is determined by values of nationalism, secularism, democracy, economic development, and social change. It includes –

→ Peace and Order – One of the key roles of the State is to bring about domestic and international peace and security.

→ Economic Development – The State must be a facilitator of agricultural and industrial growth and the economic well-being of the people.

→ Nation Building – The State is closely associated with the concept of nation integration i.e., diversity of ethnicity, religion, etc. It does not lead to divisive tendencies or disintegration of the State.

→ Governance – This refers to the creation of participatory democracy and good governance based on values like responsiveness, transparency, accountability, equity, etc.

→ Welfare – The State is expected to rectify imbalances in the society such as inequality, injustice, poverty, etc., by applying the principles of social justice, fairness and equality.

→ National integration refers to awareness of a common identity among the people of a nation. It means that though we belong to different races, religions, regions, castes, etc., we recognize the fact that ‘we are one. Today, most countries are facing a problem of national unity, integrity, and consolidation i.e., the problem of bringing about national integration.

National integration involves the reconciliation of socio-cultural,, religious, linguistic, economic diversities to build up a common national identity. It does not try to wipe out sectoral identities or to create a homogeneous society but instead aims to create a territorial nationality. The Indian system can be described as ‘Salad Bowl’ i.e., it is a pluralistic society, where the characteristics of every diversity are maintained but is subordinate to national identity.

Some common values associated with national integration are –

1. socio-economic and political justice and equality
2. secularism and a sense of fraternity among diverse communities
3. unity in diversity
4. the feeling of patriotism and loyalty to the nation.
5. common citizenship

The role of the State in national integration involves

• evolve certain values and goals that help to maintain social order and stability
• promote unity among socially and culturally diverse groups living in the territory
• establish a national authority over the subordinate political units
• establish a dialogue between the State and people to understand their living conditions, needs, and aspirations.

Indian Situation:
In 1947, when India became independent, it faced problems like social inequalities, economic underdevelopment, and poverty, illiteracy, etc. The main task was to consolidate India’s unity by recognizing India’s ethnic, religious, linguistic diversity. India had to consider two dimensions to promote national integration i.e., structural and psychological dimensions.

Structural Dimension –
This was done through the constitutional process as enumerated below.

→ The democratic system of governance with Universal Adult Franchise to encourage the participation of diverse groups.

→ Constitutional provisions

• federal structure with a strong central government
• specification of Fundamental Rights as well as Fundamental Duties
• 73rd and 74th Amendments strengthened participation of urban and rural local bodies.

→ Linguistic reorganization of States in India (1956) – The 8th Schedule of the constitution lists 22 official languages.

→ At the administrative level, there are All-India Services like IAS, IPS, etc., which provide for a unified central bureaucratic system. There also exists a state-level bureaucratic system.

→ The National Integration Conference (1961) set up the National Integration Council to review issues like communalism, casteism, regionalism, etc., and make recommendations to achieve national integration, equality, justice and secularism.

(2) Psychological Dimension – A feeling of cohesiveness, oneness helps to bind people together. Psychological integration is promoted by common culture/traditions, shared history such as freedom struggle against colonial rule; symbols such as National Flag, National Anthem, National Song, National Emblem, etc.

The Challenges To National Integration In India:

→ Princely States – There were problems with the integration of princely states of India. Eventually, even Portuguese and French colonies became part of the Indian Union.

→ The problem of North-East States – This region is ethnically very diverse. Maintenance of peace and stability, ensuring industrial and economic development has been a challenge for the Indian system. Nagaland has seen conflicts since independence with militant outfits like NSCN, etc. States like Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram have witnessed militancy. In Assam, the AASU and AGP led the ‘sons-of-the-soil’ movement.

→ Khalistan movement – In Punjab, a Sikh separatist movement for an ‘independent homeland for Sikhs.’ i.e., ‘Khalistan’ arose in the 1980s. Operation Bluestar was conducted against militants hiding in the Golden Temple. This secessionist movement also resulted in the bombing of Air India flight 182 and the assassination of then Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi.

→ Communal issues can be considered as a legacy of the Partition of India. There have been hundreds of cases of religious or sectarian conflicts such as Gujarat riots (1969, 2002), Moradabad (1980). Anti-Sikh riots (1984) following the assassination of Mrs. Gandhi, riots in Mumbai and other parts of the country in 1992-93 following the demolition of Babri Masjid, Muzaffarnagar violence (2013 in UP)

→ Left-Wing Extremism (also called the Maoist movement or Naxalism) has a major support base among landless laborers, Dalits, and tribals who experience a sense of oppression, injustice, and neglect. The first attempt to promote a peasant struggle was the Telangana Movement (1946-51).

→ The Naxal movement originated in 1967 in Naxalbari (West Bengal) led by Kanu Sanyal and inspired by the writings of Charu Majumdar. Since the 1980s, the movement has taken a militant turn.

→ In 2004, CPI (M-L), People’s War Group (PWG), and Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCCI) merged to form CPI (Maoist) which aims to overthrow the government and destroy public property and attack police and officials.

→ The Red Corridor of Naxal activities extends across States like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, etc.

Terrorism – It is the actual use or threat to use violence with an intention to disrupt life and create panic. It is called ‘asymmetric’ or ‘indirect’ warfare. It may take the form of the assassination of political figures, hijackings, bombings and attacks on civilians in public transport, etc.

Earlier, terrorism was State-centric e.g., LTTE in Sri Lanka. However, modern-day terrorism aims for abstract ideological or religious goals at the global level e.g., Taliban, Bako Haram, etc.

India has been the target of numerous terrorist attacks e.g., bomb blasts in Mumbai (1993, 2006) and LET attack on 26th Nov 2008 in Mumbai, attack on Parliament (2001), attacks on security forces at Uri (2016) and Pulwama (2019).

Jammu and Kashmir –
In October 1947, Pakistan sent militants to force Maharaja Hari Singh to join Pakistan. However, he signed the Instrument of Accession making Jammu and Kashmir a part of India. This resulted in the first India-Pakistan conflict (1947-48) as India sent troops to protect Kashmir from Pakistani raiders.

→ In 1977, Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) was formed to create an independent State of Kashmir. Pro-Pakistan guerilla groups like Hizbul Mujahideen and Islamic militancy in Kashmir in the 1990s have worsened the situation. Kashmiri Pandits were forced to flee and live in refugee camps. The militants try to radicalize people through social and political groups and make use of social media to incite the youth to indulge in stone-throwing, arson, etc.

→ Terrorist groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), Harkat ul Mujahideen (HuM), etc., have an active presence in the region. In August 2019, the ‘special’ status of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 was revoked and the State was bifurcated into Union Territories of Ladakh and of Jammu and Kashmir.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions

History of Emotions:
The word emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘remover, which means to stir up or to move An emotion refers to an involuntary, aroused state of an organism involving physical, cognitive, and behavioural components.

It is described as a combination of bodily arousal, e.g., increased heart rate, thoughts, and feelings, i.e. emotional tone, and expressive behaviour, i.e., facial expression.

The main theories of emotions are –
James-Lange theory:
It was one of the earliest theories to explain emotion According to William James and Carl Lange, physiological arousal instigates the experience of emotion.

It proposes that each specific emotion is attached to a different pattern of physiological arousal. For e.g., we feel sad because we cry. The sequence of events in emotional experience is Emotion Stimulus →Physiological Response Pattern → Affective Experience.

Cannon-Bard theory:
According to Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, we may experience the same physiological arousal but emotions can be different, for e.g., we don’t cry only when we are sad but we also cry when we are angry or extremely happy.

We experience physiological arousal and feelings at the same time and independently. For e.g., seeing a man with a gun prompts the feeling of fear as well as a racing heartbeat.

Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor theory:
According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotion is based on two factors, i.e., physiological arousal and cognitive label, for e.g., an environmental stimulus (growling dog) elicits a physiological response (increased heart rate). We cognitively label this response (fear).

Facial Feedback hypothesis:
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial expressions provide feedback to our brain about our emotions. Facial expressions are the result of our emotions but also capable of Influencing emotions.

Basic Emotions:
There are two primary emotions, viz. happiness and sadness. These emotions transform as our experiences change, for e.g., sadness can transform to grief or shame.

Some characteristics of emotions are –

1. Emotions may be positive, e.g., joy or negative, e.g., anger.
2. Emotions may occur for a brief period or may be long-lasting.
3. Emotions may be important for our survival, e.g., fear or for our psychological well-being, e.g., love.
   Emotions differ in intensity in expression, for e.g., annoyance-anger-rage.
4. Complex emotions (higher cognitive level emotions) result from the combination of basic emotions, for e.g., surprise and sadness lead to disappointment.

According to Paul Ekman, there are six basic (universal) types of emotions, i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

• Happiness – It is the basic positive emotion that is associated with psychological well-being.
• Sadness – It is characterized by related feelings of hopelessness, disappointment, etc.
• Anger – It is a powerful, negative emotion which includes hostility, frustration, etc.
• Fear – It is closely related to our survival from the evolutionary perspective. It is in response to some threat.
• Surprise – It occurs in response to some unexpected event. It may be positive or negative.
• Disgust – It is in response to some unwanted stimulus.

Physiological Changes During Emotions:
Physiological changes refer to automatic reactions that take place in our body in response to some stimulus, for e.g. if you saw a snake, the brain at the cognitive level perceived the stimulus as dangerous. This leads to physiological arousals such as dilated pupils, increased heart rate, increased pulse rate and sweating.

At the emotional level, you experience fear. The Autonomic Nervous System and glandular system signal the pituitary gland which activates the adrenal glands to secrete the cortisol hormone that triggers “the fight or flight” response. At the connection (behavioural) level there is an action plan such as running away or calling for help, etc.

Plutchik’s Model Of Emotions:

Robert Plutchik presented the wheel of emotions.

1. there are eight basic emotions viz. joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger and disgust.
2. each primary emotion has its polar opposite such as fear is opposite of anger.
3. primary emotions combine to produce complex emotions, for e.g., love (complex) is a combination of joy and trust.
4. the intensity of emotions increases as we move toward the centre and decreases as we move outward. For e.g., apprehension (weak) →fear (basic) →terror (strongest). This model is important from the perspective of emotional literacy, i.e., understanding emotional levels, complexity and change as well as appropriate emotional labelling.

Emotional Well-being:
Emotional well-being is not easily observable. It can be measured on how rationally a person handles both positive and negative emotions so he/she can lead a productive, healthy life. Techniques to achieve emotional well-being are helpful at three levels viz. physical, emotional, and social.

• Physical level, i.e., well-balanced diet, exercise.
• Emotional level, i.e., practice mindfulness, raising levels of motivation and optimism.
• Social level, i.e., engaging in prosocial behaviour, meaningful relationships.

The benefits of emotional after well-being give a long dash
Persons who have high emotional well-being experience benefits such as-

• better able to deal with stress
• better self-regulation
• increased productivity in tasks undertaken
• increased creativity and openness to new experiences
• life satisfaction due to meaningful activities and relationships.

Emotional Abuse:
Emotional abuse is any kind of abuse that is emotional rather than physical in nature. It occurs when one person subjects or exposes another person to intentionally harmful behaviour that may result in anxiety, depression, and psychological trauma for the victim.

The types of emotional abuse may be-

• verbal abuse such as blaming, insulting, labeling, threatening, swearing, etc.
• non-verbal abuse such as ignoring, rejection, bullying, spying, etc.

Dealing with emotional abuse:

• Accept that emotional abuse is not because of you, i.e., don’t justify the actions of the abuser.
• Respond assertively to the abuser but seek distance from him/her.
• Give yourself time to heal.
• Prioritize your self-care, e.g., eating right, exercise, etc.
• Mobilize support from family and friends. If needed, seek professional help.

Managing Emotions:
Managing of emotions is an important life skill. Managing emotions can be defined as, ‘the ability to be open to feelings and modulate them in oneself and in others, so as to promote personal understanding and growth.

Sometimes, our emotions hijack our thinking due to which we act impulsively. This is because the limbic system (emotional section) developed before the prefrontal cortex (thinking part) and is hence, an extremely strong part of the brain. Emotional management is an art as it is a form of expression as well as a science as it is a skill that needs to be learned and practiced.

Anger Management:
Anger is a common emotion that everybody experiences in life from time to time. Anger is a normal response to some real or perceived threat. It is a protective emotion that helps us to defend ourselves against physical or psychological harm.

However, anger may also be unwanted, irrational, and destructive. When we experience anger, our amygdala goes into action and overrides the cerebral cortex which is in control of thinking and evaluation.

Triggers of Anger refer to any event that signals the brain to activate the body’s anger system. The triggers of anger maybe

• verbal, for e.g., being blamed, disrespected, or abused
• nonverbal, for e.g., being ignored unappreciated, or rejected,
• physical such as physical threats, sexual/ physical assault, etc.

There are three factors involved in the experience of anger: A trigger (causes of anger) → individual’s personality → particular interpretation of that situation.

As the experience of anger is subjective, it can be controlled too. If we understand the triggers of anger, we can anticipate potential anger episodes and provide an intentional/ acceptable response.

Anger management is an intervention programme to prevent anger from turning into a habit or obstacle. It enables the person to create an awareness of and responsibility for his/her emotions.

This involves two aspects

1. managing one’s own anger
2. learning to respond effectively to anger in others.

The 3 R’s in anger management are Relax, Reassess and Respond:
Relaxation – Relaxation, and connection with the inner self enhances thinking and concentration and helps to respond rather than react impulsively.

Reassess – helps to revisit the situation objectively. It involves

• taking complete responsibility for your emotion
• developing empathy for the person you perceive has wronged you
• conduct a reality check e.g., is your anger justified given the facts of what happened.

Respond – This involves using anger as a motivation to change. It includes

• consulting a trustworthy person to get another perspective
• engage in talks with the other party in a calm manner
• active listening and assertive speaking
• cage your rage i.e. establish boundaries and moderate your anger.

Glossary:

→ Anger – A basic emotion expressing dislike or displeasure.

→ Emotions – A complex response pattern that involves physiological arousal, expression of behaviors, and conscious experience.

→ Emotional abuse – It is a non-physical form of abuse in which an individual purposely subjects another to behaviors such as intimidation, isolation humiliation, rejection, and verbal abuse.

→ Emotional well-being – It is an overall positive state of one’s emotions.

→ Trigger – An event or stimuli that cause a reaction.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation

Introduction Meaning of Globalisation:
Globalisation refers to the rapid spread of goods and services, technology and information, ideas and culture, trade and interactions across the world. It is the connection of different parts of the world, resulting in the expansion of international cultural, informational, economic and political activities.

In the early 1990s, the term globalisation was used to include economic, political, sociocultural, technological and ideological changes that occurred in the world in the post-Cold War era. The world has become more interconnected due to advances in technology and communication. Events in one part of the world have an impact on other parts of the world. Changes have taken place economically and culturally.

Economic Issues:
Some economic changes that have occurred due to globalisation are –

Free flow of finance and capital – Investments provide finance and help to build industries. Indian companies, both private for e.g., Tatas and government e.g., ONGC have invested in many countries in Asia, Africa and Europe. Foreign companies have also invested in India in sectors like power plants, infrastructure projects, consumer food chains, etc. This free flow of capital is both ways i.e., India to foreign countries and vice-versa. Foreign investment especially in the infrastructure sector is essential.

Change in the concept of trade

→ WTO – It was established in 1995 to replace GATT. WTO is the only agency that oversees the rules of international trade, settles trade disputes and organises trade negotiations and agreements.

→ The scope of the term ‘trade’ has widened to include not only traditional commodities like fruits, grains, minerals, oil, etc. but also services like banking, insurance and intellectual property like trademarks.

→ Use of container cargo ships to carry huge amount of goods all over the world.

→ Rise of Transnational companies for e.g., Nestle, Unilever are transnational companies that operate in India. Even Indian multinational companies like Wipro, Bajaj, etc., are doing well.

This affects the economy as follows –

→ Labour market – MNC’s recruit skilled and semi-skilled employees for e.g., Indian labour is employed in West Asia, Europe, USA, etc., in industrial and service sectors.

→ Small shops and industries – Those stores which are efficient, continue to thrive while some industries either sell out to MNC’s or shut down.

→ Agricultural sector- Many MNC’s have introduced new technology and opened up direct markets for Indian agricultural products for e.g., India exports spices, fish, etc., to many nations.

Idealogical Issues:
During the Cold War, East European nations, Soviet Union and China followed socialist ideology where the public sector was important. USA and West European countries were capitalist and so the private sector was important. India followed Democratic Socialism and a ‘Mixed Economy’ where both public and private sector co-existed in the economic system.

Today, there is only one dominant ideological and economic system i.e., market economy. However, the nature of the market economy is determined by the ideology of that country for e.g., USA has ‘capitalist market economy, many West European countries have ‘welfare market economy’, China has ‘socialist market economy. The Indian system is based on ‘economic liberalism’

Technological Issues:
Rapid advances in global communication such as internet, satellite communication etc., brought in revolutionary changes in our lives. The internet has provided search engines like ‘Google’ to find out information and has enabled social networking through micro media like Instagram, Skype, etc.

All these technologies are transnational and may be positively inclined e.g., NGO’s working for humanitarian issues or negatively inclined such as terrorist organisations.

Social and Cultural Issues:
Today, a ‘global cosmopolitan culture’ has emerged i.e., movement of people across the world and public awareness of global issues. This is noticed in matters like values e.g., secularism, clothing, food choices, ways of celebrating festivals, etc. There is international awareness of India’s rich cultural and historical heritage.

Similarly, westernisation and urbanisation have influenced Indian society e.g., breakup of the traditional joint family and rise of individualism and materialism in the country.

Political Issues:

Importance of Democracy – Disintegration of Soviet Union and the revolutions in East European countries signified the end of communism and a move towards democratic systems. Today, concepts like Participatory State, Good Governance, etc., have become important.

A participatory State indicates that all sections of society participate in policymaking and in the democratic process. Good governance focuses on the role of civil society in the functioning of an accountable, responsible and responsive government.

Position of the State – Under globalisation, sovereignty of the State, which is closely linked to its jurisdiction appears to be challenged internally and externally. Internal challenges include activism of non-state actors, rise of divisive factors, decline of national consensus, etc while external challenges include rise Of regional economic organisations, growing humanitarian concerns, etc.

Non-State actors – Today, not only States but also non-state actors like NGO’s, pressure groups, etc. Play a significant role in international affairs and in promoting humanitarian issues.

Human Rights – Protection and promotion of human rights is an important issue in the age of globalisation. Countries interpret human rights in accordance with their history, culture, economy and polity, Many nations, including India lay stress on social justice before full enjoyment of civil and political rights.

It is often argued that the role and importance of the State is slowly reducing, However, the State is still the pivot in domestic and international spheres.

Evaluation Of Globalisation:

Positive aspects

• Better communication and interconnection.
• New employment opportunities.
• Better choice of goods and services to the consumer.
• Wider investments and scope of expansion of industries.

Negative aspects

• A fear that the State’s welfare activities in fields like education, health, etc. will be diminished.
• Fear that international competition will cripple small, local businesses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 3 Chalcolithic Villages in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 3 Chalcolithic Villages in India

Chalcolithic Period in India:
The people of Late Harappan cultures who had settled on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever these people reached, new rural cultures came into being.

The discipline of architecture, town planning of the Mature Harappan period was absent in the Late Harappan settlements, established on the ruins of the Harappan cities. The designs found on the burial pots in ‘Cemetery H’ at Harappa were different. In brief, the characteristics of the Late Harappan culture were different.

Rajasthan
‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture: The chalcolithic cultures in India generally belong to the post-Harappan period. However, the ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated to 4000 B.C.E and was first discovered at Ahar near Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture.

Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture: Many sites of the culture known as ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been found in the vicinity of the copper mines at Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than the Harappan civilisation. During the excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found. The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpur culture supplied copper objects to the Harappans.

The Ganga Valley
Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper Hoards: Initially, the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) was mostly found in river beds. Now, a number of sites of the OCP culture are found in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar Pradesh. House floors of these people were made by ramming. On the house floors were found traces of hearths, terracotta male figurines and bull figurines. Remains of cattle bones, rice and barley were also found.

Bihar, Bengal, Odisha: Copper hoards have been found in Bihar, Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. However, OCP is not found in these regions. Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in these regions. In Bengal and Odisha also, some chalcolithic sites have yielded pottery that shows Harappan influence as far their shapes are concerned. They include bowls and troughs of various sizes.

Madhya Pradesh
Kayatha Culture: Kayatha is a site situated on the bank of the river known as Chhoti Kali Sindh, at a distance of 25 kilometres from Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. Kayatha culture was contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. The people of Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and animal husbandry.

Malwa Culture: The name ‘Malwa’ obviously tells us that this culture originated and spread first in the Malwa region. It existed in Madhya Pradesh during 1800- 1200 B.C.E. ‘Navadatoli’ situated on the river Narmada, on the opposite bank of Maheshwar, is an important site of Malwa culture. The other important sites are Eran (District Sagar) and Nagda (District Ujjain). They were surrounded by protective walls.

Gujarat: The chalcolithic settlements in Gujarat coincide with the following phases of the Harappan culture:
Early Harappan phase (3950-2600 B.C.E.) (2) Mature (urban) phase (2600-1900 B.C.E.) (3) Post- Harappan phase (1900-900 B.C.E.) There are ample sources of semi-precious stones in Gujarat. Making beads of these stones was a big industry during Harappan times.

The Neolithic settlements in Gujarat played a major role in procuring these stones. People residing in the neolithic settlements of Gujarat were mainly pastoral, that is people whose primary occupation was animal husbandry. Probably, some of these pastoral people were semi-nomadic.

There are regional variations in the characteristics of chalcolithic cultures of Gujarat. The chalcolithic pottery of Kutch Saurashtra and Northern Gujarat are distinct from each other. The chalcolithic villages in Kutch-Saurashtra were abandoned by 1900 B.C.E.

In the post-Harappan period, there were two chalcolithic cultures in Gujarat. The culture in south Gujarat was known as ‘Prabhas’ culture and the one in northeastern Gujarat was known as ‘Rangpur’ culture. The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures was akin to Late Harappan pottery with regards to the colour, shapes and designs. These cultures existed till 1800-1200 B.C.E.

Chalcolithic Maharashtra:
The chalcolithic culture before the arrival of the Late Harappans at Daimabad is known as ‘Savalda’ culture.

Savalda Culture: Savalda is in Dhule district. It is situated on the banks of the river Tapi Savalda culture is dated to 2000-1800 B.C.E. This culture seems to have arisen by the cultural contact between the Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra and the Harappan people in Saurashtra. People of Savalda culture at Daimabad used wheel-made pottery. The designs on their earthen pots included arrowheads, harpoons and figures of various animals.

Malwa and Jorwe Cultures: The First Farmers of Maharashtra. The people of Malwa culture reached Maharashtra around 1600 B.C.E. Permanent villages of farmers were first established in Maharashtra by the Malwa people. They were the first farmers of Maharashtra. After arriving in Maharashtra, they came into contact with the neolithic people in Karnataka. It resulted into a few changes in the pot making technology of Malwa people as far as shapes of the pots and designs are concerned.

Megalithic Period in India: At about 700 B.C.E. Inamgaon was completely abandoned by the Jorwe people. Thereafter it was never occupied till the historic period. This situation prevailed in most of the Maharashtra. However, a nomadic people of this period erected stone circles by using huge slabs of rock. The – space within these circles was used to bury dead people. Because of the huge stone slabs used in their erection, these circles are known as megaliths. The period of these megaliths is known as the ‘Megalithic Age’.

Glossary:

→ Chalcolithic Relating to or denoting a period when tools and weapons were made of copper.

→ Harpoons – A long thin weapon with a sharp pointed end and a rope tied to it that is used to catch large sea animals.

→ Contemporary – Belonging to the same time as somebody/something else.

→ Farmstead A farm and its buildings.

→ Pegging – Controlling.

→ Fanning – To cause a current of air to blow upon.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 6 India and the World

Introduction
India has played an active role in international relations even before independence for e.g. India was a signatory at the San Francisco Conference that gave shape to the United Nations Charter.

The primary objectives of India’s Foreign Policy are –

• maintenance of international peace and security.
• protection of the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• maintaining good relations with neighbouring countries and with regional groups such as ASEAN.
• greater integration with the world economy to sustain a high growth rate.

The principles of India’s foreign policy are –

→ respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all States.

→ non-intervention in the internal affairs of any other States.

→ respect for international law.

→ belief in peaceful coexistence and peaceful resolution of international disputes.

→ active participation in international and regional organisations.

→ Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru is called the ‘architect of India’s foreign policy.

Factors Influencing India’s Foreign Policy:

Geography – The extensive coastline of the Indian peninsula and the Himalayan mountain ranges have shaped India’s security and foreign policy. India shares a border with all neighbouring countries of South Asia. It also holds a dominant position in the Indian Ocean.

History – It includes the influence of traditional cultural values, cultural ties as well as values like anti-colonialism which were imbibed during the freedom struggle.

Economy – The strong urge to come out of poverty and economic backwardness created by the colonial period as well as the policy of Non-Alignment shaped India’s foreign policy. India followed democratic socialism through the policy of import substitution and importance to the public sector. Post-1991, after adopting the policy of Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation many changes have occurred in India’s foreign policy.

Polity – Political leadership has a significant impact on India’s foreign policy for e.g., Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lai Bahadur Shastri, Indira Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi have played a decisive role in determining India’s foreign policy. Ministry of External Affairs and National Security Advisor play an important role in formulating foreign policy.

International situation – During the Cold War, superpower politics had impacted India’s foreign policy e.g., adopting Non-Alignment. Similarly, conditions such as end of the Cold War, Indo-US dialogues, China-Pakistan relations, growth of regional organisations, etc., have impacted the foreign policy of India.

India’s Relations With The World:
→  Relations with major powers in the world During the Cold War, USA and Soviet Union were the superpowers. In the 21st century, Russia and China have emerged as major powers. ‘

United States of America (USA):
US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had supported the cause of India’s independence, However, relations between USA and India remained strained for most of the Cold War period. Close relations of the USA with Pakistan and its position on the Kashmir issue have been irritants in Indo-US relations. Following India’s second nuclear tests (1998) the US imposed sanctions on India.

→ However, from the start of this century Indo- US ties have improved due to the following reasons –

Anti-terrorism stance: India supported President George W. Bush’s war on terrorism. Similarly, after the 2001 terrorist attack on Indian Parliament by Pakistan-supported terrorist groups, US demanded that Pakistan should stop sponsoring cross-border terrorism.

Partnership and Agreements: The US regards India as a major partner in the Indo- Pacific region. India regards the USA as a major source of investment and partner in trade and defence as well as in multilateral fora like India-US-Japan. In 2008, the India- US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was signed by which India became the only country outside NPT that has nuclear capabilities.

Soviet Union / Russia:
During the Cold War era, Soviet Union provided aid to India in the form of technology, weapons and low-interest credit to India’s heavy industry projects in the public sector. Indo-Soviet Friendship Treaty (1971) is considered a milestone in their bilateral relations.

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia agreed to provide reactors for India’s Kudankulam nuclear power plant and for joint ventures to produce Sukhoi fighter aircraft and Brahmos missiles. Both India and Russia have major stakes in Russia oil fields such as Sakhalin-1 highlighting the importance of energy security.

China: In 1949, the Communist revolution took place in China. India was among the first nations to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement and India also recognised Chinese suzerainty on Tibet.

The main hindrances in Sino-Indian relations are –

• 1962 Indo-China war, 2017 Doklam skirmish
• Border disputes in Aksai Chin and NEFA region
• China has been critical of India offering political asylum to the Dalai Lama
• Chinese support to Pakistan
• India’s apprehensions against China’s Belt and Road Initiative.

On the positive side, India-China relationship has improved due to –

→ Agreement on maintenance of peace and tranquillity along the LOC

→ China has become among the largest trading partners of India

→ India and China are part of BRICS and SCO

→ In the late 1990s, Russia mooted the idea of a Trilateral Summit of Russia, China, India which was a recognition of India’s status as a major regional power.

Relations with Africa:
In the first few decades after independence, India supported the fight against apartheid and provided financial and material aid to liberation struggles in Africa for eg., the AFRICA Fund created at the NAM Summit (Harare)
There are several issues in the context of India-African relations

→ The India-Africa summit was held in 2015.

→ About 24 per cent of Indian crude oil imports are sourced from the African continent eg., ONGC Videsh has invested in Sudan and Egypt.

→ About two million people in Eastern and Southern Africa constitute the India diaspora which is considered as an asset by the Indian government.

→ Indian industries are interested in offering technological and material services to developing African nations.

→ India continues to be one of the military training destinations e.g., National Defence Academy, Pune has the ‘Sudan Block’ as a symbol of cooperation between India and Sudan.

→ Countries from Somalia to South Africa fall under the India maritime strategic perspective. Hence, cases of terrorism and piracy in Somalian waters have made this region sensitive to Indian concerns.

Relations with the Neighbourhood:
All South Asian countries share a border with India. Bangladesh, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka are regarded as India’s neighbours. Countries in the India Ocean Region (IOR), from East Africa, Persian Gulf to Malaysia, Vietnam as well as countries in the Central Asian hinterland of IOR form India’s extended neighbourhood.

India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the idea of Asian-African regionalism. This led to initiatives like Asian Relations Conference (1947) and Bandung conference (1955)

Relations with Pakistan: The main cause of the tensions between India and Pakistan has been the status of Kashmir. This led to the 1947-48 conflict and 1965 war. Efforts to improve Indo-Pak relations include 1972 Shimla Agreement, 1999 Lahore Agreement, etc.

Himalayan Kingdoms: Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim were British protectorates. Sikkim opted to integrate with India (1975). Relations with Bhutan have been cordial. However, relations with Nepal have seen ups and downs.

Bangladesh: India played a major role in securing independence for Bangladesh in 1971. Major issues in Indo – Bangladesh relations were about distribution of waters of Teesta river, land and maritime boundaries, Chakma refugees, etc. Cross border terrorism is a concern for both countries.

Sri Lanka: India and Sri Lanka had a disputed maritime boundary. The main issue here is Sri Lanka had accused India of supporting the LTTE.

Myanmar: It was a co-convener at the Bandung Conference. However, after the military coup in 1962 there was a cooling off in Indo-Burma relations. India extended support to the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar under its leader Mrs. Aung San Suu Kyi. The support of Myanmar is vital in India’s action against militant groups hiding in Myanmar

West Asia: India has been a supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and yet ensured that it maintains good relations with Israel. Similarly, India has shared cordial historical and cultural ties with Iran and Saudi Arabia.

South-East Asia: Indonesia under Sukarno had co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with Vietnam have always been good. India had openly criticised US intervention in Viet Minh. As part of its “Look East” and “Act East” policy, India has improved relations with countries like Japan, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc., The areas of cooperation include security of trade routes, anti-piracy operations, etc.,

India has a Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN and is also a partner in ASEAN promoted ARF. India has been an active partner in SCO, BIMSTEC, etc.,

India Ocean Region: The coastline presents both challenge and opportunity to India due to its trade and security perspectives. The Naval Plans Paper (1948) expressed India’s maritime vision. In the 1971 war with Pakistan, the Indian Navy played a significant role. Bharatmala and Sagarmala projects are significant. The Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation was created in 1997 to promote sustained and balanced growth of the region. It has 22 Member States and 9 Dialogue Partners.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India

Characteristics of Harrapan Civilisation:
A few years ago, it was strongly believed that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information was available regarding the period before that. This situation continued till the discovery of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in 1922.

The discovery of the Harappan Civilisation at these two places stretched the antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 B.C.E. Harappan civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far, more than 2000 sites of the Harappan civilisation have been recorded. The history of these cities had three stages viz:

• Early Harappan period
• Mature Harappan (Urban) period
• Late Harappan period
• Some of the main characteristics of the Harappan cities are
• Systematic Town Planning
• Central Administration
• Social Organisation
• Economy
• Use of Developed Writing System
• Some cities of Harrapan Civilisation:

Harappa: Harappa is situated on the banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in Punjab, Pakistan). The v ancient site of Harappa had spread on 150 Hectares. The first excavation at Harappa began in 1921. The first settlement of the Early Harappan period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban) phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E.

Mohenjodaro: Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District Larkana, Sindh). Area wise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest city, among those discovered in Pakistan so far. It was thought that the city was divided into two fortified sections, namely the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’.

The excavations at Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began in 1921-22. In 1923- 24 to gather more information about Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others conducted further excavations under Sir John Marshall’s direction. He was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India at that time. During these excavations, various artefacts, houses and public monuments were unearthed.

Kalibangan: The site of Kalibangan is 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is located in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P. Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited Kalibangan during his study tour of the region.

It was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi Lai, the then Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna Thapar. At Kalibangan two settlements, one of the Mature Harappan period and the other of the Early Harappan period, were found. Kalibangan was a small city compared to Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

Lothal: Lothal was established on the banks of the river Bhogao. The centre of the Harappan civilisation at Lothal was situated near the Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the supervision of S.R. Rao. The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at Lothal do not have separate fortification walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single fortification wall.

Dholavira: Dholavira was discovered by J.P. Joshi, the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India. The site is in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch). Excavations at the site were started by R.S. Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan sites, extent wise Dholavira is the fifth-largest city. An Early Harappan settlement was discovered at Dholavira. There was a protective wall built around it by using mud bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones. It was surrounded by an outer fortification wall.

The settlement within the outer fortification was divided into four sections.

1. Citadel
2. The adjacent section reserved for high officials
3. Lower Town – These three sections had walls, which separated them from each other.
4. The fourth section inside the outer fortification did not have any additional separating walls.

Rakhigarhi: In the Hissar district of Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150 kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river). Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site, among all the sites from India and Pakistan.

Its total area was more than 350 Hectares. The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in 1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, Dr Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Pune also conducted excavations at the site.

Inter-relationship between Cities and Villages:
The city people are dependent on the natural resources and villages in their vicinity in order, to meet the needs of urban way of life and urban administration. The raw material needed for Harappan industrial production included clay, various siliceous and semi-precious stones, metals, etc.

The inter-relationship between Harappan cities and villages was dependent on the mechanism of making available, things like food grains and the raw materials.

Production, Trade, Organisation and Administration:
During the Mature (urban) Harappan period the sphere of commodity exchange expanded and their import-export increased to a great extent. The internal and distant trade received momentum. Trade with distant places like Mesopotamia became regular. Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during Early Harappan times.

The Akkadian empire was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the Harappan cities reached their peak. Harappan period and the sea trade had become the preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important centres on the sea route. Harappan traders are likely to have received wool, gold and silver in exchange other commodities.

Decline of the Cities:
When Harappan civilisation was discovered, it was presumed that its cities were destroyed by invading tribes who came from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting the definition of ‘pura’. Deteriorating environment was the main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia. Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating environment were the main reasons of the decline of the Harappan civilisation too. Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became increasingly arid and there were frequent famines. Degradation of cultivable land was on the increase.

Glossary:

→ Fortification – Walls, towers etc. built especially in the past to protect a plact’ against attack.

→ Artefacts – An object that is made by a person.

→ Citadel – A castle on high ground or near a city where people could go when the rity is attacked.

→ Granary – A large building for storing grains.

→ Linguist Someone who studies the structure and development of language.

→ Furrow – A trench in the earth made by a plough.

→ Dock – An area of a port where ships stop to be loaded, repaired etc.

→ Dwindled – To become smaller or weaker.