Category: Maharashtra State Board Notes

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India

→ A social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action.

→  Individual problem is a problem experienced by an individual and it is the individual who must make an effort to solve one’s problem.

→ A social problem is different than an individual problem.

→ Unemployment is a growing problem in Indian society. According to NSSO, an unemployed person is one who puts in less than 14 hours of paid work in a week.

→ The past decade has witnessed an increasing number of farmers’ suicides. Farmers’ suicides are a serious social problem in India.

→ Domestic violence refers to abuse within the family. Domestic violence cuts across all classes, age categories, sexes and genders.

→ The term ‘addiction’ is usually used to refer to a situation of psychological and/or physical dependence on alcohol, correct to, internet or mobiles.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions

History of Emotions:
The word emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘remover, which means to stir up or to move An emotion refers to an involuntary, aroused state of an organism involving physical, cognitive, and behavioural components.

It is described as a combination of bodily arousal, e.g., increased heart rate, thoughts, and feelings, i.e. emotional tone, and expressive behaviour, i.e., facial expression.

The main theories of emotions are –
James-Lange theory:
It was one of the earliest theories to explain emotion According to William James and Carl Lange, physiological arousal instigates the experience of emotion.

It proposes that each specific emotion is attached to a different pattern of physiological arousal. For e.g., we feel sad because we cry. The sequence of events in emotional experience is Emotion Stimulus →Physiological Response Pattern → Affective Experience.

Cannon-Bard theory:
According to Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, we may experience the same physiological arousal but emotions can be different, for e.g., we don’t cry only when we are sad but we also cry when we are angry or extremely happy.

We experience physiological arousal and feelings at the same time and independently. For e.g., seeing a man with a gun prompts the feeling of fear as well as a racing heartbeat.

Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor theory:
According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotion is based on two factors, i.e., physiological arousal and cognitive label, for e.g., an environmental stimulus (growling dog) elicits a physiological response (increased heart rate). We cognitively label this response (fear).

Facial Feedback hypothesis:
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial expressions provide feedback to our brain about our emotions. Facial expressions are the result of our emotions but also capable of Influencing emotions.

Basic Emotions:
There are two primary emotions, viz. happiness and sadness. These emotions transform as our experiences change, for e.g., sadness can transform to grief or shame.

Some characteristics of emotions are –

1. Emotions may be positive, e.g., joy or negative, e.g., anger.
2. Emotions may occur for a brief period or may be long-lasting.
3. Emotions may be important for our survival, e.g., fear or for our psychological well-being, e.g., love.
   Emotions differ in intensity in expression, for e.g., annoyance-anger-rage.
4. Complex emotions (higher cognitive level emotions) result from the combination of basic emotions, for e.g., surprise and sadness lead to disappointment.

According to Paul Ekman, there are six basic (universal) types of emotions, i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

• Happiness – It is the basic positive emotion that is associated with psychological well-being.
• Sadness – It is characterized by related feelings of hopelessness, disappointment, etc.
• Anger – It is a powerful, negative emotion which includes hostility, frustration, etc.
• Fear – It is closely related to our survival from the evolutionary perspective. It is in response to some threat.
• Surprise – It occurs in response to some unexpected event. It may be positive or negative.
• Disgust – It is in response to some unwanted stimulus.

Physiological Changes During Emotions:
Physiological changes refer to automatic reactions that take place in our body in response to some stimulus, for e.g. if you saw a snake, the brain at the cognitive level perceived the stimulus as dangerous. This leads to physiological arousals such as dilated pupils, increased heart rate, increased pulse rate and sweating.

At the emotional level, you experience fear. The Autonomic Nervous System and glandular system signal the pituitary gland which activates the adrenal glands to secrete the cortisol hormone that triggers “the fight or flight” response. At the connection (behavioural) level there is an action plan such as running away or calling for help, etc.

Plutchik’s Model Of Emotions:

Robert Plutchik presented the wheel of emotions.

1. there are eight basic emotions viz. joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger and disgust.
2. each primary emotion has its polar opposite such as fear is opposite of anger.
3. primary emotions combine to produce complex emotions, for e.g., love (complex) is a combination of joy and trust.
4. the intensity of emotions increases as we move toward the centre and decreases as we move outward. For e.g., apprehension (weak) →fear (basic) →terror (strongest). This model is important from the perspective of emotional literacy, i.e., understanding emotional levels, complexity and change as well as appropriate emotional labelling.

Emotional Well-being:
Emotional well-being is not easily observable. It can be measured on how rationally a person handles both positive and negative emotions so he/she can lead a productive, healthy life. Techniques to achieve emotional well-being are helpful at three levels viz. physical, emotional, and social.

• Physical level, i.e., well-balanced diet, exercise.
• Emotional level, i.e., practice mindfulness, raising levels of motivation and optimism.
• Social level, i.e., engaging in prosocial behaviour, meaningful relationships.

The benefits of emotional after well-being give a long dash
Persons who have high emotional well-being experience benefits such as-

• better able to deal with stress
• better self-regulation
• increased productivity in tasks undertaken
• increased creativity and openness to new experiences
• life satisfaction due to meaningful activities and relationships.

Emotional Abuse:
Emotional abuse is any kind of abuse that is emotional rather than physical in nature. It occurs when one person subjects or exposes another person to intentionally harmful behaviour that may result in anxiety, depression, and psychological trauma for the victim.

The types of emotional abuse may be-

• verbal abuse such as blaming, insulting, labeling, threatening, swearing, etc.
• non-verbal abuse such as ignoring, rejection, bullying, spying, etc.

Dealing with emotional abuse:

• Accept that emotional abuse is not because of you, i.e., don’t justify the actions of the abuser.
• Respond assertively to the abuser but seek distance from him/her.
• Give yourself time to heal.
• Prioritize your self-care, e.g., eating right, exercise, etc.
• Mobilize support from family and friends. If needed, seek professional help.

Managing Emotions:
Managing of emotions is an important life skill. Managing emotions can be defined as, ‘the ability to be open to feelings and modulate them in oneself and in others, so as to promote personal understanding and growth.

Sometimes, our emotions hijack our thinking due to which we act impulsively. This is because the limbic system (emotional section) developed before the prefrontal cortex (thinking part) and is hence, an extremely strong part of the brain. Emotional management is an art as it is a form of expression as well as a science as it is a skill that needs to be learned and practiced.

Anger Management:
Anger is a common emotion that everybody experiences in life from time to time. Anger is a normal response to some real or perceived threat. It is a protective emotion that helps us to defend ourselves against physical or psychological harm.

However, anger may also be unwanted, irrational, and destructive. When we experience anger, our amygdala goes into action and overrides the cerebral cortex which is in control of thinking and evaluation.

Triggers of Anger refer to any event that signals the brain to activate the body’s anger system. The triggers of anger maybe

• verbal, for e.g., being blamed, disrespected, or abused
• nonverbal, for e.g., being ignored unappreciated, or rejected,
• physical such as physical threats, sexual/ physical assault, etc.

There are three factors involved in the experience of anger: A trigger (causes of anger) → individual’s personality → particular interpretation of that situation.

As the experience of anger is subjective, it can be controlled too. If we understand the triggers of anger, we can anticipate potential anger episodes and provide an intentional/ acceptable response.

Anger management is an intervention programme to prevent anger from turning into a habit or obstacle. It enables the person to create an awareness of and responsibility for his/her emotions.

This involves two aspects

1. managing one’s own anger
2. learning to respond effectively to anger in others.

The 3 R’s in anger management are Relax, Reassess and Respond:
Relaxation – Relaxation, and connection with the inner self enhances thinking and concentration and helps to respond rather than react impulsively.

Reassess – helps to revisit the situation objectively. It involves

• taking complete responsibility for your emotion
• developing empathy for the person you perceive has wronged you
• conduct a reality check e.g., is your anger justified given the facts of what happened.

Respond – This involves using anger as a motivation to change. It includes

• consulting a trustworthy person to get another perspective
• engage in talks with the other party in a calm manner
• active listening and assertive speaking
• cage your rage i.e. establish boundaries and moderate your anger.

Glossary:

→ Anger – A basic emotion expressing dislike or displeasure.

→ Emotions – A complex response pattern that involves physiological arousal, expression of behaviors, and conscious experience.

→ Emotional abuse – It is a non-physical form of abuse in which an individual purposely subjects another to behaviors such as intimidation, isolation humiliation, rejection, and verbal abuse.

→ Emotional well-being – It is an overall positive state of one’s emotions.

→ Trigger – An event or stimuli that cause a reaction.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me

Introduction:

• Life’s success depends on mental and emotional well-being.
• Hence, EQ is also as important as IQ.
• Normal behaviour: Well-adjusted individuals
• Abnormal behaviour: Mal-adjusted individuals

Criteria of well-adjusted individuals:

• Realistic perception of self and world: Knowing own strengths and weaknesses and accepting the world as it is.
• Openness to new experiences: Being comfortable towards changes and unknown people.
• High emotional intelligence: Appropriate understanding and management of emotions.
• Healthy relationships: Being able to honour differences, help others and make them feel special.
• High self-esteem: Feeling important, worthy and valuable about oneself.
• It’s rare for a person to possess all the criteria of a well-adjusted individual.
• Also, well-adjusted individuals can face discomfort in certain situations.

Components of emotional intelligence:
Self:

• Self-awareness: Being aware of one’s emotions, desires, motivations and actions.
• Self-regulation: Controlling emotions and restraining inappropriate actions.
• Self-motivation: Pushing oneself towards a goal without any external reward.

Social:

1. Social skills: Ability to comfortably interact with others.
2. Empathy: Ability to put yourself in other’s shoes and understand their pain.

Important aspects of healthy relationships:

1. Being honest
2. Being fair
3. Being respectful
4. Being non-threatening
5. Being a responsible parent
6. Having shared responsibilities
7. Having economic partnership
8. Having trust and support.

The vicious cycle of low self-esteem:

1. Low self-esteem → Negative thoughts →High anxiety → Poor Performance → Failure → Self-blame → Low self-esteem.
2. High self-esteem builds confidence and leads to healthy social interactions and further boosts self-esteem.

Criteria of abnormal Behaviour:

• Deviance: Behaviour going against the laws or set social and statistical standards.
• Personal distress: Feeling very low or depressed on continuous basis.
• Failure to perform functions normally: Day-to-day functioning getting impaired.
• The behaviour can’t be judged on the basis of only one criterion.

Perspectives on abnormal behaviour:

1. Biological: Abnormal behaviour is due to a chemical imbalance or physiological factors.
2. Socio-cultural: Abnormal behaviour is learned within the social context.
3. Behavioural: Abnormal behaviour is due to ineffective learning and conditioning.
4. Evolutionary: Abnormal behaviour is an exaggerated form of adaptive action.
5. Humanistic: Abnormal behaviour arises from blocked personal growth.
6. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic: Abnormal behaviour is due to unconscious and unresolved conflicts.
7. Cognitive: Abnormal behaviour arises due to false assumptions and faulty thinking.

Two models that explain the causes of abnormal behaviour:
Stress-Diathesis model:

• Disorder = Nature (Biological and genetic factors) + Nurture (Life experiences) of abnormal
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder are more likely behaviour to show abnormal behaviour when exposed to environmental stress.

Biopsychosocial model:

• Abnormal behaviour = Biological factors + Psychological factors + Sociocultural factors
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder develop abnormalities if exposed to a disturbing and hostile environment, If exposed to nurturing and protective environment, there are fewer chances.

Challenges faced by adolescents:

• Lack of self-confidence: Not feeling positive about oneself.
• Sexual orientation: Recognising and understanding their sexual preferences.
• Gender Identity: Recognising and identifying if their gender corresponds with their birth sex.
• Bullying: Outside of their protective homes, chances of being bullied.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development

Introduction:

1. The term ‘Human Development’ means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience.
2. Hereditary factors, as well as physical and social environment, determine development.
3. Development occurs at an appropriate time in physical, cognitive, emotional as well as social aspects.

Characteristics of development:

• Development follows a specific pattern.
• Development takes place in specific direction.
• Development is continuous.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.
• There are individual differences in development.
• The rate of development is different for different body parts.
• Development leads to integration.
• Certain behavioural problems are normal for a particular stage.
• Development is predictable.
• The child develops as a unified whole.

Growth maturation and development:

• Growth refers to physical changes as the age advances.
• Maturation refers to a natural unfolding of the genetic potential at the appropriate time,
• Development is qualitative change and it includes physical as well as mental changes.
• The concepts of growth, maturation and development are parallel, i.e. an individual grows, matures and develops simultaneously.

Developmental Stages:

1. Human life proceeds in stages.
2. Broadly, human development can be classified into prenatal and postnatal stages.
3. A period between conception till birth is called prenatal period while period after birth till death is called postnatal period.
4. The stages in prenatal period are germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage while post-natal period consists of neonatal stage, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, late adulthood and old age.
5. Each stage is associated with a different set of characteristics and problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self

Introduction:

• All of us are part of thiš world. We play many roles in our lives.
• Self-concept is defined as the totality of perceptions each person has of themselves.
• According to Symonds, self-concept is the way an individual reacts to himself.
• Our self-concept continues to change throughout our life span.

Dimensions of self-concept:

• Rentsch and Heffener are conducted research on the dimensions of self-concept.
• Their research showed that the overall organization of self-concept is common for all.
• They found eight categories by which participants defined themselves.

Self and life cycle:

• On average, till the age of six months, the child Is unaware of himself.
• As the child grows, he realizes that he is different from the rést of the world.
• Generally, face recognition with a mirror occurs at the average age of one and half years.
• By the age of two, the child becomes aware of general expectations.
• By the age of three, children start recognizing themselves and others as boys or girls.
• When schooling starts, a child begins to compare himself with others.
• The final unfolding of self-concept during adolescence involves perspective-taking.

Gender Identity and gender role:

1. Gender role and gender identity are important aspects of self-concept.
2. Gender identity is the perception of oneself as male or female.
3. Gender role is psycho-social in nature and is determined through social interactions.
4. Gender identity is a biological aspect while gender role is an acquired attribute of self-concept.

Aspects of self:

• Four major aspects of self are self-awareness, self-image, self-efficacy and self-esteem.
• Self-awareness is the quality or trait that involves conscious awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviours and traits.
• Self-image is a personal view or mental picture that we have of ourselves. Body image is also a part of self-image.
• Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his ability to accomplish some specific goal or a task.
• Self-esteem is our overall evaluation of our worth as a person based on all positive and negative self-perceptions.

Self-regulatIon:

1. Self-regulation is being able to control our own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
2. When one engages in self-regulation, he avoids impulsive reactions.
3. Self-regulation also involves focusing on certain parts of life.
4. Higgins showed that people either have promotion or prevention regulatory focus.
5. Self-regulation has crucial implications in our life.

Carl Rogers’ theory of self:

• According to Carl Rogers, every individual has a tendency to actualize himself.
• People who achieve self-actualization are well-balanced, well-adjusted, and interesting.
• Two important concepts related to Roger’s theory are the real self and ideal self.
• The real self is what we actually are while ¡deal self is what we want to be.
• High congruence between the real self and ideal self leads to a healthy productive life.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology

Introduction:

• Psychology is an important science in modern times.
• The scope of Psychology is getting wider with the emergence of new branches.
• Today, there are more than 50 branches of Psychology that help to study human behaviour from different angles.

Branches of psychology:

• Two broad areas of Psychology are Theoretical branches and Applied branches.
• In theoretical branches, psychologists concentrate on carrying out research and forming theories while applied branches help individuals to use the knowledge gained from research to solve their real-life problems.
• The extremely vast scope of psychology has led to development of many subfields.

Theoretical Branches:

• Developmental Psychology studies changes in behaviour from conception to death.
• Child Psychology studies biological, psychological and emotional changes in childhood.
• Social Psychology studies how a person influences people and gets influenced by them.
• Cognitive Psychology concentrates on higher mental processes like thinking and reasoning.
• Experimental Psychology attempts to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour.
• Abnormal Psychology studies unusual patterns of behaviour, emotions and thinking.

Applied Branches:

• Educational Psychology studies all factors related to education.
• Clinical Psychology studies diagnoses and treats emotional and behavioural problems.
• Counseling Psychology deals with milder behavioural problems.
• Criminal Psychology deals with motives behind criminal behaviour.
• Sports Psychology helps sportspersons to maintain their motivation and stamina.
• Industrial Psychology is concerned with the behaviour of people working in an organisation.

Careers in psychology:

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Economics Notes Chapter 9 Money Market and Capital Market in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Economics Notes Chapter 9 Money Market and Capital Market in India

Financial Markets:
Financial Markets refers to market where sale and purchase of financial assets such as bonds, stock, derivatives, government securities, foreign currency, etc. takes place.
Financial market operates through banks, non-banking financial institutions, brokers, mutual funds, discount houses, etc.
Financial Markets include two distinct markets i.e. Money market and Capital market.

MONEY MARKET IN INDIA

Money Market:
Money Market is a market for short terms funds. It deals in funds up to one-year maturity.
It is market for ‘near money’ i.e. short term instruments such as trade bills, government securities, promissory notes, etc.
Such instruments are highly liquids in nature, less risky and easily marketable.

Structure of Indian Money Market:
The Indian money market consist of 2 segments namely organised sector and unorganised sector. Main money marketplace in India are located at Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata.
Mumbai is the most active money market centre in India.

Central Bank of India (Reserve Bank of India):
Central Bank is the apex or the supreme monetary banking authority and occupies an important position in the monetary and banking structure of the country.

→ The central bank aims at promoting the financial and economic stability of the country.

→ It is a reservoir of credit and a lender of the last resort.

→ RBI was set up on the basis of the recommendation of Hilton Young Commission.

→ RBI commenced its operations on 1st April, 1935 as a private shareholder’s bank.

→ RBI was nationalised on 1st January 1949.

→ It is the most important constituent of the money market.

→ In different countries, the central banks are known by different names, for instance in U.S.A. it is known as Federal Reserve System, in UK it is called as Bank of England.

Definition:

→ According to M.H. de Kock “A central bank is one which constitutes the apex of the monetary and banking structure of its country, and which performs as best as it can in the national interest, certain functions such as note issue, banker to the government, banker to the banks and custodian of country’s foreign exchange resources.”

→ According to Prof. W. A. Shaw “A central bank is a bank which controls credit. ” From the above definitions, it is clear that the central bank is the supreme monetary and banking authority and occupies a pivotal position in the monetary and banking structure of the country.

Functions of Central Bank:
The functions of central bank differ from country to country in accordance with the prevailing economic conditions. But some functions which are commonly performed by the central banks in all the countries are :

→ Issue of Currency Notes: The central bank has been authorised to print and issue currency notes. The RBI enjoys the monopoly of note issue of all denominations except one rupee note. The one rupee note and coins are issued by the Ministry of Finance of the Government of India but their distribution is undertaken by RBI.

→ Banker to the Government: The central bank acts as (A) a banker, (B) an advisor, and (C) an agent to the government. It performs all those functions which commercial banks perform for their customers.
It act as a friend, philosopher and guide to the government.

→ Bankers’ Bank: The central bank is the apex body of the banking system. It supervises, coordinates and controls the operations and activities of the commercial banks. As their bank it undertakes following functions:

(A) acts as a custodian of Cash Reserve
(B) acts as a lender of last resort
(C) acts as a clearinghouse

→ Controller of Credit / Money Supply: To overcome inflation, it restricts the supply of credit and to prevent depression and deflation, it expands credit. There are various methods through which central bank controls the supply of credit in the economy. They are –

(A) Quantitative Methods or General Measures
(B) Qualitative Methods or Selective Measures

→ Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserve of the Country: The central bank is a custodian of country’s gold and major foreign currencies like US dollar, Euro the British Pound, etc. which are obtained by government from international trade. An important function of central bank is to maintain the exchange rate of national currency.

→ Developmental and Promotional Functions: In developing countries like India, a very important function of central bank is to promote, economic development.

• To promote banking habit among the people.
• To provide agriculture finance through NABARD and to promote rural and agriculture development.
• To provide Industrial Finance through IDBI, IFCI and SFC and to boost the growth of industrial sectors of India.
• To provide Export-Import Finance through EXIM Bank.
• To encourage small savings by providing opportunities of investment and better returns for small savers.

→ To collect data and publish through monthly bulletins like RBI Bulletin, RBI Journals, etc.

Commercial Bank:
A bank is a dealer in credit. Commercial bank performs all the functions for earning profit. Commercial banks play an important role in mobilizing savings and allocating them to various sectors of the economy. It includes both scheduled commercial bank and non scheduled commercial bank.

Scheduled commercial banks are those included in the second schedule of the Reserve Bank of India Act 1934. In terms of ownership and function commercial bank in India can be classified into 4 categories Public Sector banks, Private Sector banks, Regional Rural banks, Foreign banks.

Definition:
Banking Regulation Act 1949 defines – “Banking means the accepting for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits of money from public, repayable on demand or otherwise and withdrawable by cheque, draft, order or otherwise. ”

Functions of a Commercial Bank:
Primary Functions / Banking Functions :

→  Accepting Deposits: Commercial bank accepts the following types of deposits :
(a) Demand Deposits and
(b) Time Deposits

(a) Demand Deposits: are of two types –

1. Current Account Deposits
2. Saving Account Deposits

(b) Time Deposits: are of two types –

• Recurring Deposits
• Fixed Deposits

→ Advancing / Granting Loans: Commercial banks grant loans and advances to the borrowers in the following forms :

1. Loans
2. Cash Credit
3. Overdraft facility
4. Discounting of bills

Ancillary, Secondary or Non-Banking or Subsidiary Functions:

Multiple Credit Creating Process of Commercial Banks:
Commercial banks accept deposits called primary deposits from the public. These deposits form the basis of all credit creation activities. A part of these deposits are kept as reserve by the bank to meet the demand for cash by the depositor. This is termed as minimum cash reserve.

The balance over the minimum cash reserve which is used by the banks to create credit by way of providing loans is known as derivative deposits. When a bank grants loan to a borrower, bank opens a deposit account in the name of the borrower and credit the loan amount in this account. This is called derivative deposit. Borrower can withdraw money from this account by means of cheque.

When the borrower withdraws money from his loan account by a cheque, it is deposited by the payee in some other bank. These banks again create credit on the basis of fresh deposits received after keeping the required reserves. In this way commercial bank creates credit money which is the part of total money supply. So commercial banks are also known as manufacturers of money. The amount from repaid loans can be further used to sanction additional loans. This process is called as multiple credit creation.

Co-operative Banks:
Co-operative Credit Societies is Act of 1904 led to formation of co-operative banks. Presently registered under Co-operative Society Act, 1965. Their main function is to get the deposits from members and public and grant loans to farmers (even farmers who is not a member) and small industrialist in both rural and urban area.

The co-operative credit sector comprises of co-operative credit institutions such as primary co-operative credit societies, district central co-operative bank and state co-operative banks.

Development Financial Institutions (DFI’S): Development financial institutions are agencies that provides medium and long term financial assistance and are engaged in promotion and development of industry, agriculture and other key sectors.
Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) was the first development financial institution to be established in 1948. Following are the types of financial institutions in India :

• Term lending eg. IFCI, IDBI, ICICI, EXIM
• Refinance Institutions
• Investment Institutions
• State level Institution

Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) has become a universal bank by a reverse merger with its subsidiary ICICI Bank.

Discount and Finance House of India (DFHI):
DFHI was incorporated in March 1988 on recommendation of the Vaghul Committee. It commenced its operation in April 1988. It is jointly owned by the RBI, public sector banks and financial institutions. The main function of this money market institution is to discount, re-discount, purchase and sell treasury bills, trade bills, commercial bills and commercial papers.

Unorganised Sector
Unorganised money market generally operates in urban centres, but their actual activities are largely confined to rural sector. This market is unorganised because its activities are not coordinated by the RBI.

Indigenous Bankers:
They are financial intermediaries which operates on similar line to banks. They deal in short term credit instruments like hundi (Indigenous bill of exchange). The rate of interest differ from one market to another and from one bank to another. They do not depend on deposits entirely, they may also use their own funds.

They provide loans directly to trade and industry and to agriculturists through money lenders and traders.
They are the important source of fund due to inadequate banking facilities, simple and flexible nature of their operations, their informal approach and personal contacts, prompt services and availability of timely funds.

Money Lenders:
Moneylenders are predominant in villages. However, they are also found in urban areas. Interest rates are generally high. Large amount of loans are given for unproductive purposes. The operation of money lenders are prompt, informal and flexible. The borrowers are generally agricultural labourers, marginal and small farmers, artisans, factory workers, small traders, etc. Due to exploitative nature of money lenders, their activities are presently restricted by RBI.

Unregulated Non-bank Financial Intermediaries:
It consist of Chit funds, Nidhis, Loan Companies and others.

→ Chit funds: They are saving institutions. The members make regular contributions to the fund. The collected fund is given to some member based on previously agreed criterion (by bids or by draws). Chit funds are more famous in Kerala and Tamilnadu.

→ Nidhis: The deposits from the members are the major source of funds and they make loans to members at reasonable rate of interest for the purpose of construction of house, repairs, etc. They are highly localized to South India.

→ Loan Companies: They are called finance companies. Their total capital consists of borrowings, deposits and owned funds. They offer high rate of interest along with other incentives to attract deposits. A part is invested in banks in the form of fixed deposits and the rest is used to grant loans. Their activities are mainly confined to traders, small scale industries and self-employed person. Loans are given at a very high rate of interest.

Money Market Instruments:
The following instruments are traded in the money market – Call or Notice Money, Treasury Bills, Commercial Papers, Certificate of Deposits and Commercial Bills.

Role of Money Market in India:

• To fulfil short-term requirements of borrowers.
• To provide better liquidity management.
• To provide portfolio management.
• To establish equilibrium between the demand for and supply of short-term funds.
• To fulfil financial requirements of the Government.
• To implement monetary policies announced by the central bank.
• To economize the use of cash.
• To ensure growth of commerce, industry and trade.

Problems of the Indian Money Market:
Indian Money Market is relatively underdeveloped when compared to advanced markets like London and New York Money Markets.

Its main weaknesses are given as below :

• Existence of Unorganised Money Market
• Multiplicity in Interest Rates
• Shortages of Funds
• Seasonal Diversity of Money Market
• Absence of Well Organized Banking Sector
• Delays in technological up-gradation

Reforms Introduced in the Money Market:

1. Introduction of New Money Market Instruments
2. Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF)
3. Deregulation of Interest Rates
4. National Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT) and Real-Time Gross Settlement (RTGS)

CAPITAL MARKET IN INDIA

Capital Market:
Capital market is the market for long term funds. It refers to all the facilities and the institutional arrangements for borrowing and lending funds (Medium-term and long term funds). The demand for long-term funds comes mainly from industry, trade, agriculture and governments. The supply of funds comes largely from individual savers, corporate savings, bank, insurance companies, specialized financial institutions and government.

Structure of Capital Market in India:
The Capital Market, like any market, is composed of those who demand funds (i.e. borrower) and those who supply funds (i.e. lenders).

Indian Capital Market is broadly composed of

• Gilt-Edged (i.e. Govt. Securities Market)
• Industrial Securities Market
• Development Financial Institutions
• Financial Intermediaries.

→ Gilt Edged Market: It deals in government and semi-government securities. These securities carry fixed interest rates. The investors in government securities are mainly financial institution like Commercial banks, LIC and Provident fund. RBI plays a very important role in this market through open market operation.

→ Industrial Securities Market: It deals with shares and debentures of old and new companies. This market is further divided into new issue market i.e. Primary Market and old issue market i.e. Secondary Market.
The primary market helps to raise new capital through share and debentures. The secondary market deals with securities already issued by the companies. The primary market operates through the companies, while the secondary market operates through stock exchange. BSE and NSE are the premier stock exchanges in the country.

→ Development Financial Institution: They provide medium-term and long term financial assistance to the private sector. They include Industrial Finance Corporation of India 1948 (IFCI), the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI), the Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India (IRBI) in 1971, which was renamed as Industrial Investment Bank of India Ltd., (IIBL) in 1995, the Export and Import Bank of India (EXIM Bank) in 1982 and so on.

→ Financial Intermediaries: They consist of merchant banks, mutual funds, leasing companies, venture capital companies and others. They help in mobilising savings and supplying funds to the capital market.

Role of Capital Market in India:

• To mobilise long term savings from various section of the population through sale of securities.
• To provide equity capital to business organisations for purchase of assets.
• To encourage public to invest in industrial securities.
• To help to achieve operational efficiency in the organisation.
• To determine fair and quick value of equity shares and debt instruments.
• To bring integration among various sectors of the economy.

Problems of the Capital Market:

• Irreparable loss to capital market, due to increasing number of scams and frauds.
• Loss of public trust and confidence among the investors.
• Problem of insider trading and price manipulation affecting smooth functioning of capital market.
• Lack of trading in debt instruments like bonds, debentures, etc.
• Decline in volume of trade as investors preferred to trade in premier stock exchanges like BSE and NSE.
• Lack of efficient information as compared to advanced countries.

Reforms in Capital Market:

1. Establishment of Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) in 1988.
2. Establishment of National Stock Exchange (NSE) in 1992.
3. Introduction of Computerised Screen-Based Trading System (SBTS).
4. Introduction of Demat Accounting system in 1996.
5. Increased access to global funds by Indian companies through ADRs and GDRs.
6. Establishment of Investor Education and Protection Fund (IEPF) in 2001.
7. Introduction of automated complaint handling system.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 2 Key Concepts and Issues Since 1991: Globalisation

Introduction Meaning of Globalisation:
Globalisation refers to the rapid spread of goods and services, technology and information, ideas and culture, trade and interactions across the world. It is the connection of different parts of the world, resulting in the expansion of international cultural, informational, economic and political activities.

In the early 1990s, the term globalisation was used to include economic, political, sociocultural, technological and ideological changes that occurred in the world in the post-Cold War era. The world has become more interconnected due to advances in technology and communication. Events in one part of the world have an impact on other parts of the world. Changes have taken place economically and culturally.

Economic Issues:
Some economic changes that have occurred due to globalisation are –

Free flow of finance and capital – Investments provide finance and help to build industries. Indian companies, both private for e.g., Tatas and government e.g., ONGC have invested in many countries in Asia, Africa and Europe. Foreign companies have also invested in India in sectors like power plants, infrastructure projects, consumer food chains, etc. This free flow of capital is both ways i.e., India to foreign countries and vice-versa. Foreign investment especially in the infrastructure sector is essential.

Change in the concept of trade

→ WTO – It was established in 1995 to replace GATT. WTO is the only agency that oversees the rules of international trade, settles trade disputes and organises trade negotiations and agreements.

→ The scope of the term ‘trade’ has widened to include not only traditional commodities like fruits, grains, minerals, oil, etc. but also services like banking, insurance and intellectual property like trademarks.

→ Use of container cargo ships to carry huge amount of goods all over the world.

→ Rise of Transnational companies for e.g., Nestle, Unilever are transnational companies that operate in India. Even Indian multinational companies like Wipro, Bajaj, etc., are doing well.

This affects the economy as follows –

→ Labour market – MNC’s recruit skilled and semi-skilled employees for e.g., Indian labour is employed in West Asia, Europe, USA, etc., in industrial and service sectors.

→ Small shops and industries – Those stores which are efficient, continue to thrive while some industries either sell out to MNC’s or shut down.

→ Agricultural sector- Many MNC’s have introduced new technology and opened up direct markets for Indian agricultural products for e.g., India exports spices, fish, etc., to many nations.

Idealogical Issues:
During the Cold War, East European nations, Soviet Union and China followed socialist ideology where the public sector was important. USA and West European countries were capitalist and so the private sector was important. India followed Democratic Socialism and a ‘Mixed Economy’ where both public and private sector co-existed in the economic system.

Today, there is only one dominant ideological and economic system i.e., market economy. However, the nature of the market economy is determined by the ideology of that country for e.g., USA has ‘capitalist market economy, many West European countries have ‘welfare market economy’, China has ‘socialist market economy. The Indian system is based on ‘economic liberalism’

Technological Issues:
Rapid advances in global communication such as internet, satellite communication etc., brought in revolutionary changes in our lives. The internet has provided search engines like ‘Google’ to find out information and has enabled social networking through micro media like Instagram, Skype, etc.

All these technologies are transnational and may be positively inclined e.g., NGO’s working for humanitarian issues or negatively inclined such as terrorist organisations.

Social and Cultural Issues:
Today, a ‘global cosmopolitan culture’ has emerged i.e., movement of people across the world and public awareness of global issues. This is noticed in matters like values e.g., secularism, clothing, food choices, ways of celebrating festivals, etc. There is international awareness of India’s rich cultural and historical heritage.

Similarly, westernisation and urbanisation have influenced Indian society e.g., breakup of the traditional joint family and rise of individualism and materialism in the country.

Political Issues:

Importance of Democracy – Disintegration of Soviet Union and the revolutions in East European countries signified the end of communism and a move towards democratic systems. Today, concepts like Participatory State, Good Governance, etc., have become important.

A participatory State indicates that all sections of society participate in policymaking and in the democratic process. Good governance focuses on the role of civil society in the functioning of an accountable, responsible and responsive government.

Position of the State – Under globalisation, sovereignty of the State, which is closely linked to its jurisdiction appears to be challenged internally and externally. Internal challenges include activism of non-state actors, rise of divisive factors, decline of national consensus, etc while external challenges include rise Of regional economic organisations, growing humanitarian concerns, etc.

Non-State actors – Today, not only States but also non-state actors like NGO’s, pressure groups, etc. Play a significant role in international affairs and in promoting humanitarian issues.

Human Rights – Protection and promotion of human rights is an important issue in the age of globalisation. Countries interpret human rights in accordance with their history, culture, economy and polity, Many nations, including India lay stress on social justice before full enjoyment of civil and political rights.

It is often argued that the role and importance of the State is slowly reducing, However, the State is still the pivot in domestic and international spheres.

Evaluation Of Globalisation:

Positive aspects

• Better communication and interconnection.
• New employment opportunities.
• Better choice of goods and services to the consumer.
• Wider investments and scope of expansion of industries.

Negative aspects

• A fear that the State’s welfare activities in fields like education, health, etc. will be diminished.
• Fear that international competition will cripple small, local businesses.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1 students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1

→ After independence, India has made advancements in various fields, especially after 1990. India emerges as a strong country at international forum. In this chapter, we are going to study the advancement made by India in different fields.

Globalisation:

→ India adopted the policy of liberalisation in 1990, since then many changes took place in trade and commerce.

→ Many countries with a view to protect their home market imposed various duties on imported goods so to discuss this problem a meeting was called in Cuba which was attended by 56 nations.

→ The first multinational trade agreement was signed by 23 nations at Geneva known as GATT.

World Trade Organisation (WTO):

1. Nearly 123 nations came together and found an organisation on 1st January 1995 with an objective of opening the world for free trade known as WTO.
2. The Director-General of WTO, Arthur Dunkel prepared a draft known as ‘Dunkel Draft’ which emphasises on trade, free from governmental custom duty and other restrictions. This policy is known as liberalisation.
3. WTO published a report on 2006 which mentioned India’s increasing economic growth.

Transformation in various field:
Transformation of a nation can be discerned through certain indicators. Transformation has taken place in various fields.

Rural Development Plans:

→ Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana: This plan was started on 2nd October 1993 for creating opportunities for job and private enterprise.

→ Rojgar Hami Yojana: Started on 2nd October 1993 to assure daily wages to the unemployed agricultural labourers.

→  In 2001, this plan was merged in Gramin Rojgar Yojana.

→  To provide support to farmers in difficult times ‘Kisan Credit Card’ plan was started.

→  Suvarnajayanti Gramin Swayam Rojgar Yojana: This plan was launched in 1999 by merging various plans together.

→ Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana: This plan was implemented in 1999 to provide employment to the unemployed men and women.

→  Later it was merged into ‘Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana’.

→ Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana: Started by merging together Rojgar Aashwasan Yojana and Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana for creating employment opportunities in rural areas.

→  This plan was merged in Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana.

→ Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana: Under this scheme each family in rural areas was given 100 day’s work.

→  Agriculture and Livestock: Agriculture and agro related sector were given importance.

→ Soil Health Card Scheme aims at increasing soil fertility.

→  Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchan Yojana given importance to irrigation.

→ Krishi Vikas Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Vima Yojana implemented for economic welfare of farmers.

→  In 2007, national policy for farmers was adopted.

→ Pradhan Mantri Peek Vima Yojana was introduced if crop failure was there.

→ Agricultural exhibitions are organised through Indian Council for Agricultural Research.

→ Goat keeping or sheli plan is encouraged.

→ ‘National Livestock Mission’ was established in 2014.

→ Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Started in 2000 with a purpose of building roads and linking the villages.

Urban Development Plans:

→ Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (Jnnurm): Started in 2005 with aim of massive modernisation of cities through road building, public transport, wastewater disposal and other management schemes.

→ Golden Quadrilateral (Suvarna Chatushkon Yojana): Started in 1998 with an aim of creating national highway network to join the four megacities – Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkatta.

→ Metro Railway: Flagged off in 2002 in Delhi.

Means of Communication:

Postal department:

→ Indian Postal Department was established in 1766 by British.

→ The postal department has introduced various schemes such as Postal Saving Account, Term Deposit, Public Provident Fund, Kisan Vikas Patra, Sukanya Samruddhi Yojana.

→ Post Offices were brought under core banking solutions, ATMs were installed and also provided services to non-resident Indians.

→ Speed post: changed the very nature of Indian postal service.

Economic issues:

→ Ministry of Disinvestment: It was established by Government of India to take care of its disinvestment policy. Focuses on reducing disinvestment in sectors like mining, petroleum, refineries etc.

→ The policy of privatisation, Liberalisation and Globalisation are popularly known as KHAUJA boosted the confidence of Indian companies.

→ It was renamed as Department of Investment in 2016.

→ BRICS: Established in 2006 with an aim of enhancing the trade among the participant countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

Science and Technology.

• A super-computer named Param-8000 was created.
• In 1998, an advanced version of Param-8000 was created and named as Param-10000.
• In 2003, Parampadma Super Computer was dedicated to nation.
• In 2004, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) was the biggest firm in Asia providing software services.
• In 2000, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was established to provide services like cellular phones, internet and broadband.

Space research:

1. In 2007, India launched Italian satellite and entered in a new field of space research.
2. In 2008, India launched Chandrayaan-1, the first lunar probe.
3. After that India launched Chandrayaan-2 and Mangalyaan.

Defence Affairs.

→ In 1999, Kargil war was fought between India and Pakistan when Pakistan intruded Kashmir. It is also referred to as ‘Operation Vijay’.

→ In 2009, India launched Strategic Strike Nuclear Submarine of Arihant class.

→ The Government of India emphasised on indigenous production by using indigenous technology (Make in India).

Youth related policies.

• In 1972, a number of centres of‘Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan’ were established.
• National Youth Empowerment Programme put a thrust on topics like literacy, education health and hygiene, family welfare etc.
• 12th January the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekanand is observed as ‘National Youth Day.
• Youth Hostels Association of India has established youth hostels in various parts of country.

Right to Information Act 2005.

1. This kind of act was first applied in Sweden in 1776.
2. In 1982, L.K. Kulwant first initiated the process by applying to know the Jaipur Municipal Corporation’s work for cleaning the city.
3. Aruna Rao started the movement ‘Majdoor Kisan Shakti Sanghatan’ in 1990.
4. The act was implemented in Maharashtra after a long struggle of Anna Hazare.

Reorganisation of States:
New states were formed in India

→  Chhattisgarh: Fazal Ali Commission rejected the demand. Later by the initiative of, Government of India the state of Chhattisgarh was created on 1st November 2000.

→  Uttarakhand: The demand of separate state of the people of Garhwal and Kumaon was supported by Indian National Congress. Uttarakhand Parvatiya Rajya Parishad was established for this purpose. Finally, in 2000 the state of Uttaranchal was created, which renamed as Uttarakhand.

→ Jharkhand: In 1947, All India Jharkhand Party was established for a demand of separate Jharkhand. The Bihar legislative assembly passed the bill in 2000 and the state of Jharkhand came into existence on 15th November 2000.

→  Telangana: Telangana Rashtriya Samiti started the movement for the creation of a separate Telangana. In 2014 this proposal was approved in the Parliament and the state of Telangana came into existence on 2nd June 2014.

→  Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh: Article 370 gave a special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

→  Recently in August 2019, Government of India revoked Article 370 and from 31st October the state of Jammu and Kashmir was reconstructed as two separate Union territories of Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh.

Glossary:

→ Liberalisation – The removal or loosening of restriction on something, typically an economic or political system

→ Globalisation – Is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies and government worldwide

→ Modernisation – The process of adapting something to modern needs or habits

→ Reorganisation – The action or process of changing the way in which something is organised.

→ Pisciculture — The controlled breeding and rearing of fish

→ Census – An official count or survey, especially of a population

→ Bureaucrats – Is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution of government

→ Oceanography – The branch of science which deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of the sea

→ Terrorism – The unlawful use of violence and intimidation especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims

→ Entrepreneur – A person who sets up a business, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit.

→ Co-operative – Involving mutual assistance in working towards a common goal Transformation A marked change in form, nature, or appearance.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes  Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders

Mental Health Continuum Model:
The major criteria of abnormality are deviance, personal distress and impaired functioning. Illness and absence of illness are not distinct categories but are on opposite poles of the continuum sequence as explained below.

Stage 1 – The person is physically and psychologically healthy. He/She is motivated and emotionally stable.

Stage 2 – The person may get affected by life stressors, feel anxious, lack energy, etc., for e.g., most students are tense before the exams. It is possible to push oneself back towards positive health by adopting a healthy lifestyle.

Stage 3 – The person shows signs of psychological damage and may experience negative feelings like sadness, lack of motivation, fear and may even indulge in addictive behaviour. However, even this stage is not irreversible.

Stage 4 – The person exhibits extreme distress, impairment in mental, emotional and social functioning. He/She needs professional treatment.

Criteria For Psychological Disorders:
According to DSM-5, there are five criteria for psychological disorders.

• Clinically significant syndrome – In psychological disorders, there should be a cluster of symptoms together i.e., a syndrome.
• Distress and Impairment – There should be distress, i.e., psychological pain due to negative feelings and stress, as well as impairment, i.e., inability to perform appropriate roles in personal and social situations.
• Dysfunction – If the symptoms lead to developmental or psychological dysfunctions, it signifies mental disorders.
• Responses to stressors that are normally accepted responses e.g., sadness experienced at the loss of a loved one or culturally sanctioned responses are not considered as signs of mental disorders.
• Behaviour which is only deviant but does not produce any disability or distress or dysfunction does not become a sign of mental disorder.

Mental Wellness:
According to the WHO, mental wellness refers to “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope up with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”

The important aspects of mental wellness are –

• Emotional aspect – There is a sense of well-being and contentment
• Psychological aspect – There is high self-esteem and tendency of self-actualization.
• Life philosophy – There are clear goals and objectives in life.

The Illness Wellness Continuum Model by John Travis:

Quadrant 1 – The person is in an ideal state of functioning.
Quadrant 2 – The person has no mental illness but experiences subjective feeling of unhappiness.
The person suffers from mental illness yet he/she experiences a high sense of subjective well-being.
This is the lowest level of functioning. The person has mental illness and also experiences distress.

Mental Disorders – Classification:
There are two major systems to classify psychological disorders.

1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) – DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) in 2013. It contains 22 broad categories of mental disorders with subcategories.
2. International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) – ICD-11
   was created by the WHO in 2019, according to which there are 19 broad categories of mental disorders.

Major Psychological Disorders:
Anxiety Disorders:
The word ‘anxiety’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Anxietas’ which means ‘uneasy or troubled mind’. Anxiety refers to a condition in which the person feels worried and uneasy for a long time for no obvious reasons.
The main anxiety disorders are:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:
The person frequently experiences anxiety more intensely so that it starts interfering with the ability to perform daily tasks. Symptoms include irritability, headaches, insomnia, dizziness, breathlessness, etc.

Phobic disorders:
The word ‘phobia’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Phobos which was used to refer to the God of Fear. A phobia is an intense, persistent but irrational and disproportionate fear of a specific object or situation. DSM classifies phobias as simple phobias, e.g., Acrophobia, Claustrophobia etc., and social phobias, e.g., fear of speaking or eating in public.

Depressive Disorders:
Depression is an emotional state typically marked by sadness and guilt, feelings of anxiety and hopelessness. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, interest and sleep, fatigue, sexual dysfunction and suicidal thoughts.

Bipolar Disorders:
Bipolar disorder is also known as Manic Depressive disorder. The person experiences alternate phases of two states viz. mania, i.e., extreme excitement and elation and depression, i.e., extreme irritability, hopelessness and sadness. Main causative factor are genetic factors and imbalance in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, epinephrine, etc.

Trauma And Stress-Related Disorders:
Stress is inevitable in life. Daily hassles, relationship issues, frustration, chronic illness, etc., lead to stress. If stress is in moderate intensity, it acts as a motivation. However, intense and prolonged stress impairs normal functioning of the individual and may lead to stress disorders.

The two types of stress disorders are –
Acute Stress Disorder (ASD):
If a person (aged 6 years and above) has experienced extremely stressful situations like death of a loved one, serious disease or injury, sexual abuse, natural disasters, etc., then he/she may experience ASD.

The symptoms of ASD include –

• emotional numbness and instability
• nightmares and sleep distturbances
• insomnia, lack of concentration, irritability and guilt feelings
• depression

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
If symptoms of ASD continue for more than one month with the same intensity, the person is diagnosed with PTSD.

A person who has suffered trauma generally goes through three stages viz.-

• Shock stage – the individual is in shock, i.e., extremely disturbed.
• Suggestible stage – he/she may seek guidance from others and may either accept these suggestions unquestioningly or may get extra sensitive.
• Recovery stage – the person shows signs of recovery.
  However, some persons still show signs of mental illness i.e., PTSD.

The symptoms of PTSD include –

• nightmares, flashbacks, severe anxiety
• hypervigilance and avoidance of situations that bring back the trauma
• irritability, social isolation
• survivor’s guilt.

Substance-Related And Addictive Disorders:
Addictive disorders refer to the physical and psychological inability to stop consuming some substance or indulging in some activity although it is harmful. This includes dependence on drugs, nicotine, alcohol, etc., or activities like gambling, eating, gaming, etc. Drug addiction refers to an inability to control the use of alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, marijuana, medications, etc.

Symptoms of addiction are –

• Excessive consumption of drugs or alcohol and inability to reduce the dosage.
• In case the person tries to stop the drug use, then withdrawal symptoms occur which include sweating, tremors, muscle pain, goosebumps, etc.
• Physical and psychological dependence may lead to drug abuse or overdose of the addictive substance and even cause the death of the person.
• The person’s physical, emotional, social and financial well-being breakdown. Alcoholics
  Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) are organizations that help addicts to overcome dependence.

Schizophrenia:
The term ‘Schizophrenia’ is derived from Greek words Schizein (to split) and phren (mind). It was coined in 1911 by a Swiss psychologist, Paul Eugene Bleuler. Thus, the literal meaning of the word ‘schizophrenia’ is split mind. It is a psychotic disorder.

According to DSM-5 the two types of symptoms for schizophrenia are:

• Positive symptoms,
• Negative symptoms.

Positive symptoms are an excess addition to normal thoughts or behaviour of the period. Such symptoms are –

• hallucinations – mainly auditory and visual hallucination
• delusions – mainly of grandeur, reference and persecution
• disorganized thought and speech
• bizarre body movements and disorganized behaviour
• incongruent affect.

Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of thought processes. They lead to low level of functioning and may not improve much even with treatment.

This includes –

• emotional blunting – diminished emotional expression
• anhedonia – inability to experience deep positive emotions
• alogia – diminished speed
• asociality – lack of desire to form relationships
• avolition – lack of motivation
• apathy.

Sometimes, a schizophrenic exhibits positive as well as negative symptoms.

Treating Psychological Disorders:
Signs that help to identify individuals who require expert (professional) help in mental health are called ‘red flags’. Symptoms, if present, in any person should satisfy three requirements

1. it should be present for a considerably long period of time
2. symptom has become more severe than before
3. it has created problems in the person’s life.

The signals indicating a need for professional help are:

• inability to concentrate or to sleep well.
• severe confusion and memory loss.
• intense and uncontrollable negative feelings.
• self-neglect or even self-harm.
• loss of interest in friends/ family/ activities.
• odd statements or strange use of words.

Treatment strategies range form pharmacotherapy (administering drugs) to psychotherapy such as Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, Interpersonal Therapy, Group/Family Therapy, etc. Mental heath professionals are qualified to decide the plan of treatment.

Glossary:

→ Anxiety – A state in which the feelings of an individual experience of uneasiness and worry and tends to anticipate that there will be danger or failure in the future.

→ Delusion – A false belief that is strongly held by an individual even in the presence of contradictory evidence

→ Depression – A state of experiencing sadness, pessimism, loss of interest in activities that previously were enjoyable along with physical, cognitive and behavioural changes.

→ Distress – A negative emotional state indicating worry.

→ DSM-5 – The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013: it is a widely used manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Dysfunction – Any impairment or disturbance leading to abnormality in behaviours or functioning.

→ Hallucination – It is a false visual/auditory perception that occurs in the absence of appropriate stimuli.

→ ICD- 11 – The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems issued by the World Health Organisation (WHO) consisting of a manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Mental Health – It is a state of mind that is characterised by emotional well being, good adjustment and ability to cope with the demands and stresses of daily living.

→ Stigma – A negative social attitude which is associated with individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder and often leads to social disapproval, discrimination and exclusion of that individual in society.

→ Alcoholics Anonymous – It is an international, nonprofessional, self-supporting, mutual aid fellowship started by Bill Wilson and Bob Smith in 1935 in the USA. Its stated purpose is to enable its members to stop drinking and stay sober. It has a 12 step programme to help stop alcohol abuse and recover from alcoholism.