Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 4 Vedic Period

Vedic Culture:
Vedic literature, Linguistics and Archaeology:
Most of the information about their culture is derived from the Vedic literature. This literature is fundamentally in the form of the faith systems of the Vedic tribes and eulogies of their deities. There are various opinions about the chronology of the Vedic culture. However, there is a general agreement that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on the basis of astronomical events.

This debate began in the 16th century. Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not known. In the 16th century, the European academics became aware of the similarities between Sanskrit and Latin- Greek languages. It resulted into the notion of the ‘Indo-European’ language family.

Vedic Literature and Social organisation of Vedic Times:
The Vedic literature is supposed to be the earliest literature of India. They were written in Sanskrit. The four Vedas form the core of the Vedic literature.

Rigveda: The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns) composed to eulogise the deities. The verses in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta (hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala.

Yajurveda: The Yajurveda offers explanation of the sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a combined composition of the Rigvedic richa in verse and the explanation of its use v as a mantra in prose.

Samaveda: The Samaveda is a text that gives the rules of reciting mantras in a musical form. The Samaveda is regarded as the text that is fundamental in the development of Indian music.

Atharvaveda: The Atharvaveda is about the day-to-day life. It contains information about charms and medicines for various problems and diseases. It also talks about the norms of statesmanship.

Varna System:
The Vedic society was organized into four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely, Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The varna system is first mentioned in the tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In the later Vedic period, the varna system lost its flexibility. Also, the caste system got rooted firmly by this period.

In the beginning, the varna or the caste was decided by one’s occupation. Later it came to be determined on the basis of birth. Hence it became impossible to change one’s varna and caste, in which he/she was born.

Ashrama System:
The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture lays down the norms of living an ideal life by dividing the span of human life into four successive stages, namely Brahmacharyashram, Grihasthashram, Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram.

• In the first stage one was expected to spend an austere life and earn knowledge and necessary occupational skills.
• In the second stage one was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties with one’s wife by his side.
• In the third stage one was expected to retire from the active life of the householder and if the need be, to give advice to the younger people. It was also desirable that one should stay away from human settlement.
• In the fourth and the last stage one was expected to renounce all the family bonds, accept a wandering life and to go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to settle at one place for a longer time.

The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded through Vedic Literature:
The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu region have been mentioned in the Rigveda. Among them occur the names like Puru, Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc. They were the tribes who subsisted on agriculture.

The Rigveda mentions a battle known as ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region, who did not belong to the Rigvedic people. They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’. Panis were looked upon as enemies by the Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle of the Vedic people.

Later Vedic Period:
Later Vedic Period is dated to around 1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this period is gathered from the treatises written in that period. The material culture as reflected in the epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata was studied with the help of archaeological evidence.

A picture of the migration in the Later Vedic period can be gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward the east and its geographic markers from the literature of that period. The Later Vedic period saw a gradual formation of confederacies of the Vedic villages. They were known as ‘Janapada’. Generally, the seniors and the elites in a Janapada collectively took social decisions.

Glossary:

→ Philology – A discipline that traces the etymological history and meanings of words.

→ Etymology – The study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history.

→ Dasyu – It is derived from the Sanskrit word “Dasa”. Usually means enemy or servant.

→ Suktas – Hymns.

→ Eulogise – Praise highly in speech or writing.

→ Oligarchy – A small group of people having control of a country or organization.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes

→ Natural vegetation and wildlife change according to latitudes. Hence, a variety of natural vegetation is found in different regions from the equator to the poles.

→ Biome : An area where different types of flora and fauna live together in the same region in the same type of climatic conditions is called a biome.

→ It is the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.

Elements of climate that affect the boundaries of biomes:

1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Amount of insolation received
5. Soil conditions

Biome:
The combined co-existence of flora and fauna which is a result of the region’s climate.
Ecosystem:
The interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Biotic Factors:
They consist of plants, various types of animals, bacteria, etc.
Abiotic Factors:
They consist of soil, water, sunlight and nutrients.

→ Through the abiotic factors, the biotic components receive supply of nutrients and energy.

Tropical Rainforest Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 0° to 10° N and S.
• Vegetation : Biodiversity is very high.
  Categorized into three layers – lowermost layer – bushes; middle layer low trees: third layer – tall, huge trees.
• Animal Life : Three-tier system of trees allows every bird and animal to have its own niche in the areas from the ground to the tree top.
• Human Life : Indigenous tribes live primitive lives.
  Practice primary occupations – like food-gathering and hunting.
• Use of Biome by Man : Hardwood is used in construction and making furniture.
  For this, some regions are being over exploited.
• Current Scenario: Degradation is increasing because of increasing agriculture and industrialisation. Rare species of animals and birds are threatened.

Tropical Deciduous Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: 5° to 30° N and S.

Vegetation: Deciduous Forests – trees drop leaves in dry season; they are dense and lush in rainy season.

Animal Life: A large diversity in fauna. Biodiversity found in these biomes ranks second in the world.

Human Life : Easier than that in the rainforest.
People practicing primary and secondary occupations based on forest are found here.
Various tribal communities inhabit these regions.
There are rural and urban areas, too.
These forests are being encroached upon.

Use of Biome :

• Wood from teak has many uses.
• Plants are used for medicines and secondary products.
• Bamboos are used for construction of houses and agriculture.
• Various fruits and spices are also obtained.

Current Status :

• Forests are in danger due to deforestation and wildfire.
• Wild species are endangered by humans through extensive use of fertilizers and spray of insecticides.
• This biome is influenced by human population.

Savannah Grassland Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent : 10° to 20° N and S.
• Vegetation : Grasslands with perennial cover of grass that grows 3 m to 6 m in height. Elephant Grass – thick, coarse, broad-leaved.
  Very few shrubs and trees found.
• Animal Life : The abundance of grass cover and its perennial nature makes savannah biomes rich in herbivore animals.
• Human Life Grass provides shelter to animals. Biome also supports carnivore animals. Comparatively difficult human life.
• Use of Biome In the past this biome was used to hunt for trophies and hence was known as a heaven for hunting.
• Current Status Victim of frequent forest fires; loss of biodiversity.
  Due to overgrazing, industrialisation and agriculture the area under grassland is decreasing, leading to extension of the Sahara Desert in Africa.

Tropical Desert Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 20° to 30° N and S
• Vegetation: Dispersed due to dry climatic conditions.
  Typical desert vegetation.
• Animal Life: Limited biodiversity. Few large animals in desert.
  Small animals – burrowing type.
  Birds and insects are also found.
• Human Life Human life is very difficult.
  Depending on the availability of water, animal husbandry or agriculture is followed.
  Human settlements found only near oasis, in a dispersed manner.
• UseofBiome : Dates are produced as food item.
  Agriculture with the help of irrigation. Mining is also an activity.
• Current Status : Desertification is increasing. ,

Mediterranean Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 30° to 40° N and S.
• Vegetation: Shorter trees.
  Mixed vegetation: evergreen and deciduous.
  Trees of citrus family, shrubs of coloured flowers.
• Animal Life: Herbivores, birds of prey, reptiles and various types of insects and honeybees.
• Human Life: Pleasant climate.
  Human life has flourished very well. Industries based on fruits and flowers. Tourism and development of cinema industry.
• Current Status: Tertiary occupations and urbanisation has increased.
  Biodiversity found in plants and animals is decreasing due to human interference.

Temperate Deciduous Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 50° N and S.
• Vegetation: Broad-leaved trees.
  3 levels of trees : tall trees, short trees, and shrubs.
  Hardwood and deciduous trees.
• Animal Life: Animals have thick and soft fur.
  Birds and insects are found.
• Human Life: Forests provide food, wood and ample amount of oxygen.
  Forests being encroached upon for agriculture.
• Current Status: Biome reducing due to agriculture and encroachment by settlements. Biodiversity has reduced.
  Habitat of animals is being encroached upon.

Temperate Grasslands Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 55° N and S.
• Vegetation: Soft grass is dominant.
  Not many types of trees.
• Animal Life: Rich and varied animal life.
  Herbivore animals are found.
• Human Life: Human settlements are sparse.
  Earlier, hunting was the main occupation. Presently, agriculture and animal rearing.
• Current Status : Commercial agriculture is increasing.
  Industries are increasing.
  Meadows and pastures are reducing because of over grazing.
  Biome is getting degraded.

Taiga Biome :

Latitudinal Extent : 50° to 55° N.

Vegetation :One type of tree species.
Evergreen coniferous forests.
Tall trees, tapering to the apex.
Waxy leaves and branches tapering to the ground do not let snow stay on the trees.

Animal Life: Animals have thick hides to survive the snow-covered ground.

Human Life: Climate is very cold, so human settlement is sparse.
Occupation is lumbering.
Saw mills, paper pulp, wooden furniture industries.

Current Status: Deforestation is easy because the wood is soft.

Tundra Biome:

Latitudinal Extent: 65° to 90° N.

Vegetation: It is the coldest biome.
Ground is frozen for 8 months of the year.
There is a layer of permanently frozen ground below the surface, called permafrost.
Vegetation has adapted to the cold and short growing season.

Animal Life: Very scarce animal life.
Animals have thick fur, layers of fats in their bodies to face the cold climate.

Human Life: Very sparse human settlements.
Recently life has changed and fishing methods have improved. Exploitation of fish is faster.

Current Status: Biome is experiencing more development due to increased transportation and means of communication.
Standard of life has improved.
Global warming is badly affecting the snow cover and the dependent species.

Mountain or High Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: Not specific.
It depends on altitude, slopes of high mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Rockies.

Vegetation: Ranges from deciduous to tundra according to altitude.
Plants are small and perennial.

Animal Life: Animals with special adaptation to snow.

Human Life: In some areas, people grow crops.
Grazing and sheep rearing are primary occupations.
Tourism has developed in such biomes.
Transhumance is practiced.

Current Status: Over tourism has caused overcrowding.
Mountain biomes are threatened by deforestation, wildfires, hunting, poaching and urban sprawl.

Aquatic Biomes :
Besides the terrestrial biomes of the world, we find biomes in the water too. For example, oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.

Aquatic Biomes :

1. Freshwater Biomes
2. Marine Biomes
3. Wetland Biomes
4. Coral Reef Biomes
5. Estuaries

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 2 First Cities of India

Characteristics of Harrapan Civilisation:
A few years ago, it was strongly believed that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information was available regarding the period before that. This situation continued till the discovery of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in 1922.

The discovery of the Harappan Civilisation at these two places stretched the antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000 B.C.E. Harappan civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far, more than 2000 sites of the Harappan civilisation have been recorded. The history of these cities had three stages viz:

• Early Harappan period
• Mature Harappan (Urban) period
• Late Harappan period
• Some of the main characteristics of the Harappan cities are
• Systematic Town Planning
• Central Administration
• Social Organisation
• Economy
• Use of Developed Writing System
• Some cities of Harrapan Civilisation:

Harappa: Harappa is situated on the banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in Punjab, Pakistan). The v ancient site of Harappa had spread on 150 Hectares. The first excavation at Harappa began in 1921. The first settlement of the Early Harappan period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban) phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E.

Mohenjodaro: Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District Larkana, Sindh). Area wise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest city, among those discovered in Pakistan so far. It was thought that the city was divided into two fortified sections, namely the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’.

The excavations at Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began in 1921-22. In 1923- 24 to gather more information about Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others conducted further excavations under Sir John Marshall’s direction. He was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India at that time. During these excavations, various artefacts, houses and public monuments were unearthed.

Kalibangan: The site of Kalibangan is 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is located in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P. Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited Kalibangan during his study tour of the region.

It was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi Lai, the then Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna Thapar. At Kalibangan two settlements, one of the Mature Harappan period and the other of the Early Harappan period, were found. Kalibangan was a small city compared to Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

Lothal: Lothal was established on the banks of the river Bhogao. The centre of the Harappan civilisation at Lothal was situated near the Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the remains of Harappan dock. Lothal was excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the supervision of S.R. Rao. The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at Lothal do not have separate fortification walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single fortification wall.

Dholavira: Dholavira was discovered by J.P. Joshi, the Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India. The site is in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch). Excavations at the site were started by R.S. Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan sites, extent wise Dholavira is the fifth-largest city. An Early Harappan settlement was discovered at Dholavira. There was a protective wall built around it by using mud bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones. It was surrounded by an outer fortification wall.

The settlement within the outer fortification was divided into four sections.

1. Citadel
2. The adjacent section reserved for high officials
3. Lower Town – These three sections had walls, which separated them from each other.
4. The fourth section inside the outer fortification did not have any additional separating walls.

Rakhigarhi: In the Hissar district of Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150 kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river). Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site, among all the sites from India and Pakistan.

Its total area was more than 350 Hectares. The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in 1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later, Dr Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College, Pune also conducted excavations at the site.

Inter-relationship between Cities and Villages:
The city people are dependent on the natural resources and villages in their vicinity in order, to meet the needs of urban way of life and urban administration. The raw material needed for Harappan industrial production included clay, various siliceous and semi-precious stones, metals, etc.

The inter-relationship between Harappan cities and villages was dependent on the mechanism of making available, things like food grains and the raw materials.

Production, Trade, Organisation and Administration:
During the Mature (urban) Harappan period the sphere of commodity exchange expanded and their import-export increased to a great extent. The internal and distant trade received momentum. Trade with distant places like Mesopotamia became regular. Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during Early Harappan times.

The Akkadian empire was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the Harappan cities reached their peak. Harappan period and the sea trade had become the preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important centres on the sea route. Harappan traders are likely to have received wool, gold and silver in exchange other commodities.

Decline of the Cities:
When Harappan civilisation was discovered, it was presumed that its cities were destroyed by invading tribes who came from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’ meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting the definition of ‘pura’. Deteriorating environment was the main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia. Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating environment were the main reasons of the decline of the Harappan civilisation too. Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became increasingly arid and there were frequent famines. Degradation of cultivable land was on the increase.

Glossary:

→ Fortification – Walls, towers etc. built especially in the past to protect a plact’ against attack.

→ Artefacts – An object that is made by a person.

→ Citadel – A castle on high ground or near a city where people could go when the rity is attacked.

→ Granary – A large building for storing grains.

→ Linguist Someone who studies the structure and development of language.

→ Furrow – A trench in the earth made by a plough.

→ Dock – An area of a port where ships stop to be loaded, repaired etc.

→ Dwindled – To become smaller or weaker.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance

Indian Ocean – Introduction :

• The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean in the world. Its average depth is 4000m,
• It is the only ocean in the world named after a particular country, i.e., India.
• It occupies about 20 percent of the total oceanic area.
• The Indian Ocean spreads between Africa in the west, Asia in the north and east, Australia in the east and Southern Ocean in the south.
• It is blocked northwards, resulting in development of monsoon climate of the Indian sub-continent.

Bottom Relief of the Indian Ocean :

1. Continental Shelf
2. Mid-Oceanic Ridges
3. Ocean Basins
4. Oceanic Deeps
5. Islands

Continental Shelf:

• Continental Shelf is a portion of continents, submerged under oceanic water.
• It is normally occupied by gulfs, seas, bays, straits.
• A continental shelf may be extensive, narrow, wide.
• These shelfs are covered with deposits brought by agents of erosion.
• Some of the sedimentary deposits, remain deposited for a long time, which then forms sedimentary rocks.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges :

• They are submerged mountain ranges that separate deep portions of the sea (ocean) floor.
• The Indian Ocean consists of a Mid Oceanic ridge called as a Mid Indian Oceanic ridge.
• It originates from Gulf of Eden near the Peninsula of Somalia.
• It extends toward the south and at east side of Madagascar.
• This ridge gets divided into two branches :
• The branch diverts towards southwest and extends up to Prince Edward Island. It is known as  Southwest Indian Ocean ridge.
• The branch extends southeast up to Amsterdam and St. Paul Island.
• Mid Indian Oceanic ridge has many parallel ridges.
• This ridge does not flow continuously due to fracture zones such as Owen fracture zone, Amsterdam fracture zone, etc.
• Apart from Mid-Oceanic Ridges there is Kerguelen Plateau, in south side of Madagascar is Madagascar Plateau and in south side of Africa is Agulhas Plateau.

Indian Ocean Basins :

1. Oman
2. Somali
3. Mascarene
4. West Australian
5. Ganga
6. Arabian
7. Mauritius
8. Aguihas-Natal
9. Mid-Indian

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:
They are the deepest portions in the oceans.

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:

1. Jeva or Sunda Trench
   (7,450 m deep)
2. Ob Trench
   (6,875 m deep)

Islands:
land mass surrounded by ocean on all sides.

Distribution of temperature in the Indian Ocean :

• The study of temperature influences the biotic component in the oceans.
• Temperature is also largely responsible for the movement in the oceanic water.

Distribution of salinity in the Indian Ocean :

• Salinity influences the density of the ocean water.
• It cause the movements in the ocean water.

Temperature : of Indian Ocean water depends on the seasons

Pre-Monsoon Season:

• summer solstice
• Temperature increases especially in the southern portion closer to the equator.

South-We st Monsoon Season

• Temperature is lowered in the Arabian Sea because of monsoonal winds.

North-East

• Monsoon Season Winter solstice
• Temperature reduced
• Northern parts of Bay of Bengal record temperature of about 24°C.

Salinity: Salinity is the measure of amount of salts in the sea water. It is expressed as parts per thousand (%o). Average salinity of sea-water is 35%o.

• The salinity is generally high around the Somali Peninsula and closer to the Saudi Arabian Coast due to high temperature and low rainfall; there are very few rivers entering into the sea in this area.
• In the Bay of Bengal, huge discharges from the Ganga system and also from the Peninsular rivers leads to lowering of salinity in this area.
• Salinity is less in the rainy season.

Ocean Currents in the Indian Ocean :

• They are affected by Monsoon Wind System, especially in the northern Indian Ocean.
• They mix waters, transfer heat from one part of the ocean to the other.
• Indian ocean currents are affected by:
  • Shape of its coastline
  • Extent of coastline
  • Peculiar arrangement of the wind system in the region.

Indian Ocean Currents:

1. South Equatorial Current
2. The West Wind Drift

1. The West Wind Drift

• flows east to west, influenced by easterlies.
• circulation completed by Mozambique-Agulhas currents

2. South Equatorial Current:

• flows east to west, to east, influenced by westerlies
• circulation completed by West Australian Current.

→ In the northern portion of the Indian Ocean, seasonal monsoonal winds drive the currents.

→ These currents mostly follow along the coast lines.

→ During summer they follow in the clockwise direction and during the winter they flow in anticlockwise direction.

Importance of the Indian Ocean :

• The Indian Ocean region connects three continents namely Asia, Africa and Australia.
• It supports some of Asia’s biggest economies.
• It contains three busiest straits — Hormuz, Malacca and Bab-el-Mandeb.
• Majority of crude oil exported by Gulf countries passes through this route via Strait of Hormuz.
• The economy of island countries like Maldives and Seychelles located in the Indian Ocean depends upon the marine ecosystem and marine tourism in the Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean region has become important for countries that have military and naval bases, leading to tension in the region.
• Abyssal plains of the Indian Ocean are a source of nickel, copper, manganese, and cobalt.

Importance of the Indian Ocean for India :

• The Indian Ocean provides sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and America.
• It carries heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfield of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia.
• Large reserves of hydrocarbons tapped in the offshore areas.
• Beach sands, rich in heavy minerals and offshore deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India.
• The increasing trade relations with the countries of the East, India has higher stakes in the region in the future.
• The increasing trade has brought about threats of piracy, armed robbery, and maritime terrorism.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Contemporary India: Challenges to Peace, Stability and National Integration students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 4 Contemporary India: Challenges to Peace, Stability and National Integration

Introduction:
Meaning of national integration:
Public order, peace, and stability are crucial requirements for the political, economic, and socio-cultural development of a State. The primary function of the State is maintenance law and order towards the process of national integration.

The role of the State is determined by values of nationalism, secularism, democracy, economic development, and social change. It includes –

→ Peace and Order – One of the key roles of the State is to bring about domestic and international peace and security.

→ Economic Development – The State must be a facilitator of agricultural and industrial growth and the economic well-being of the people.

→ Nation Building – The State is closely associated with the concept of nation integration i.e., diversity of ethnicity, religion, etc. It does not lead to divisive tendencies or disintegration of the State.

→ Governance – This refers to the creation of participatory democracy and good governance based on values like responsiveness, transparency, accountability, equity, etc.

→ Welfare – The State is expected to rectify imbalances in the society such as inequality, injustice, poverty, etc., by applying the principles of social justice, fairness and equality.

→ National integration refers to awareness of a common identity among the people of a nation. It means that though we belong to different races, religions, regions, castes, etc., we recognize the fact that ‘we are one. Today, most countries are facing a problem of national unity, integrity, and consolidation i.e., the problem of bringing about national integration.

National integration involves the reconciliation of socio-cultural,, religious, linguistic, economic diversities to build up a common national identity. It does not try to wipe out sectoral identities or to create a homogeneous society but instead aims to create a territorial nationality. The Indian system can be described as ‘Salad Bowl’ i.e., it is a pluralistic society, where the characteristics of every diversity are maintained but is subordinate to national identity.

Some common values associated with national integration are –

1. socio-economic and political justice and equality
2. secularism and a sense of fraternity among diverse communities
3. unity in diversity
4. the feeling of patriotism and loyalty to the nation.
5. common citizenship

The role of the State in national integration involves

• evolve certain values and goals that help to maintain social order and stability
• promote unity among socially and culturally diverse groups living in the territory
• establish a national authority over the subordinate political units
• establish a dialogue between the State and people to understand their living conditions, needs, and aspirations.

Indian Situation:
In 1947, when India became independent, it faced problems like social inequalities, economic underdevelopment, and poverty, illiteracy, etc. The main task was to consolidate India’s unity by recognizing India’s ethnic, religious, linguistic diversity. India had to consider two dimensions to promote national integration i.e., structural and psychological dimensions.

Structural Dimension –
This was done through the constitutional process as enumerated below.

→ The democratic system of governance with Universal Adult Franchise to encourage the participation of diverse groups.

→ Constitutional provisions

• federal structure with a strong central government
• specification of Fundamental Rights as well as Fundamental Duties
• 73rd and 74th Amendments strengthened participation of urban and rural local bodies.

→ Linguistic reorganization of States in India (1956) – The 8th Schedule of the constitution lists 22 official languages.

→ At the administrative level, there are All-India Services like IAS, IPS, etc., which provide for a unified central bureaucratic system. There also exists a state-level bureaucratic system.

→ The National Integration Conference (1961) set up the National Integration Council to review issues like communalism, casteism, regionalism, etc., and make recommendations to achieve national integration, equality, justice and secularism.

(2) Psychological Dimension – A feeling of cohesiveness, oneness helps to bind people together. Psychological integration is promoted by common culture/traditions, shared history such as freedom struggle against colonial rule; symbols such as National Flag, National Anthem, National Song, National Emblem, etc.

The Challenges To National Integration In India:

→ Princely States – There were problems with the integration of princely states of India. Eventually, even Portuguese and French colonies became part of the Indian Union.

→ The problem of North-East States – This region is ethnically very diverse. Maintenance of peace and stability, ensuring industrial and economic development has been a challenge for the Indian system. Nagaland has seen conflicts since independence with militant outfits like NSCN, etc. States like Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram have witnessed militancy. In Assam, the AASU and AGP led the ‘sons-of-the-soil’ movement.

→ Khalistan movement – In Punjab, a Sikh separatist movement for an ‘independent homeland for Sikhs.’ i.e., ‘Khalistan’ arose in the 1980s. Operation Bluestar was conducted against militants hiding in the Golden Temple. This secessionist movement also resulted in the bombing of Air India flight 182 and the assassination of then Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi.

→ Communal issues can be considered as a legacy of the Partition of India. There have been hundreds of cases of religious or sectarian conflicts such as Gujarat riots (1969, 2002), Moradabad (1980). Anti-Sikh riots (1984) following the assassination of Mrs. Gandhi, riots in Mumbai and other parts of the country in 1992-93 following the demolition of Babri Masjid, Muzaffarnagar violence (2013 in UP)

→ Left-Wing Extremism (also called the Maoist movement or Naxalism) has a major support base among landless laborers, Dalits, and tribals who experience a sense of oppression, injustice, and neglect. The first attempt to promote a peasant struggle was the Telangana Movement (1946-51).

→ The Naxal movement originated in 1967 in Naxalbari (West Bengal) led by Kanu Sanyal and inspired by the writings of Charu Majumdar. Since the 1980s, the movement has taken a militant turn.

→ In 2004, CPI (M-L), People’s War Group (PWG), and Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCCI) merged to form CPI (Maoist) which aims to overthrow the government and destroy public property and attack police and officials.

→ The Red Corridor of Naxal activities extends across States like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, etc.

Terrorism – It is the actual use or threat to use violence with an intention to disrupt life and create panic. It is called ‘asymmetric’ or ‘indirect’ warfare. It may take the form of the assassination of political figures, hijackings, bombings and attacks on civilians in public transport, etc.

Earlier, terrorism was State-centric e.g., LTTE in Sri Lanka. However, modern-day terrorism aims for abstract ideological or religious goals at the global level e.g., Taliban, Bako Haram, etc.

India has been the target of numerous terrorist attacks e.g., bomb blasts in Mumbai (1993, 2006) and LET attack on 26th Nov 2008 in Mumbai, attack on Parliament (2001), attacks on security forces at Uri (2016) and Pulwama (2019).

Jammu and Kashmir –
In October 1947, Pakistan sent militants to force Maharaja Hari Singh to join Pakistan. However, he signed the Instrument of Accession making Jammu and Kashmir a part of India. This resulted in the first India-Pakistan conflict (1947-48) as India sent troops to protect Kashmir from Pakistani raiders.

→ In 1977, Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) was formed to create an independent State of Kashmir. Pro-Pakistan guerilla groups like Hizbul Mujahideen and Islamic militancy in Kashmir in the 1990s have worsened the situation. Kashmiri Pandits were forced to flee and live in refugee camps. The militants try to radicalize people through social and political groups and make use of social media to incite the youth to indulge in stone-throwing, arson, etc.

→ Terrorist groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), Harkat ul Mujahideen (HuM), etc., have an active presence in the region. In August 2019, the ‘special’ status of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 was revoked and the State was bifurcated into Union Territories of Ladakh and of Jammu and Kashmir.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India

→ A social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action.

→  Individual problem is a problem experienced by an individual and it is the individual who must make an effort to solve one’s problem.

→ A social problem is different than an individual problem.

→ Unemployment is a growing problem in Indian society. According to NSSO, an unemployed person is one who puts in less than 14 hours of paid work in a week.

→ The past decade has witnessed an increasing number of farmers’ suicides. Farmers’ suicides are a serious social problem in India.

→ Domestic violence refers to abuse within the family. Domestic violence cuts across all classes, age categories, sexes and genders.

→ The term ‘addiction’ is usually used to refer to a situation of psychological and/or physical dependence on alcohol, correct to, internet or mobiles.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Emotions

History of Emotions:
The word emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘remover, which means to stir up or to move An emotion refers to an involuntary, aroused state of an organism involving physical, cognitive, and behavioural components.

It is described as a combination of bodily arousal, e.g., increased heart rate, thoughts, and feelings, i.e. emotional tone, and expressive behaviour, i.e., facial expression.

The main theories of emotions are –
James-Lange theory:
It was one of the earliest theories to explain emotion According to William James and Carl Lange, physiological arousal instigates the experience of emotion.

It proposes that each specific emotion is attached to a different pattern of physiological arousal. For e.g., we feel sad because we cry. The sequence of events in emotional experience is Emotion Stimulus →Physiological Response Pattern → Affective Experience.

Cannon-Bard theory:
According to Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, we may experience the same physiological arousal but emotions can be different, for e.g., we don’t cry only when we are sad but we also cry when we are angry or extremely happy.

We experience physiological arousal and feelings at the same time and independently. For e.g., seeing a man with a gun prompts the feeling of fear as well as a racing heartbeat.

Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor theory:
According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotion is based on two factors, i.e., physiological arousal and cognitive label, for e.g., an environmental stimulus (growling dog) elicits a physiological response (increased heart rate). We cognitively label this response (fear).

Facial Feedback hypothesis:
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial expressions provide feedback to our brain about our emotions. Facial expressions are the result of our emotions but also capable of Influencing emotions.

Basic Emotions:
There are two primary emotions, viz. happiness and sadness. These emotions transform as our experiences change, for e.g., sadness can transform to grief or shame.

Some characteristics of emotions are –

1. Emotions may be positive, e.g., joy or negative, e.g., anger.
2. Emotions may occur for a brief period or may be long-lasting.
3. Emotions may be important for our survival, e.g., fear or for our psychological well-being, e.g., love.
   Emotions differ in intensity in expression, for e.g., annoyance-anger-rage.
4. Complex emotions (higher cognitive level emotions) result from the combination of basic emotions, for e.g., surprise and sadness lead to disappointment.

According to Paul Ekman, there are six basic (universal) types of emotions, i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

• Happiness – It is the basic positive emotion that is associated with psychological well-being.
• Sadness – It is characterized by related feelings of hopelessness, disappointment, etc.
• Anger – It is a powerful, negative emotion which includes hostility, frustration, etc.
• Fear – It is closely related to our survival from the evolutionary perspective. It is in response to some threat.
• Surprise – It occurs in response to some unexpected event. It may be positive or negative.
• Disgust – It is in response to some unwanted stimulus.

Physiological Changes During Emotions:
Physiological changes refer to automatic reactions that take place in our body in response to some stimulus, for e.g. if you saw a snake, the brain at the cognitive level perceived the stimulus as dangerous. This leads to physiological arousals such as dilated pupils, increased heart rate, increased pulse rate and sweating.

At the emotional level, you experience fear. The Autonomic Nervous System and glandular system signal the pituitary gland which activates the adrenal glands to secrete the cortisol hormone that triggers “the fight or flight” response. At the connection (behavioural) level there is an action plan such as running away or calling for help, etc.

Plutchik’s Model Of Emotions:

Robert Plutchik presented the wheel of emotions.

1. there are eight basic emotions viz. joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger and disgust.
2. each primary emotion has its polar opposite such as fear is opposite of anger.
3. primary emotions combine to produce complex emotions, for e.g., love (complex) is a combination of joy and trust.
4. the intensity of emotions increases as we move toward the centre and decreases as we move outward. For e.g., apprehension (weak) →fear (basic) →terror (strongest). This model is important from the perspective of emotional literacy, i.e., understanding emotional levels, complexity and change as well as appropriate emotional labelling.

Emotional Well-being:
Emotional well-being is not easily observable. It can be measured on how rationally a person handles both positive and negative emotions so he/she can lead a productive, healthy life. Techniques to achieve emotional well-being are helpful at three levels viz. physical, emotional, and social.

• Physical level, i.e., well-balanced diet, exercise.
• Emotional level, i.e., practice mindfulness, raising levels of motivation and optimism.
• Social level, i.e., engaging in prosocial behaviour, meaningful relationships.

The benefits of emotional after well-being give a long dash
Persons who have high emotional well-being experience benefits such as-

• better able to deal with stress
• better self-regulation
• increased productivity in tasks undertaken
• increased creativity and openness to new experiences
• life satisfaction due to meaningful activities and relationships.

Emotional Abuse:
Emotional abuse is any kind of abuse that is emotional rather than physical in nature. It occurs when one person subjects or exposes another person to intentionally harmful behaviour that may result in anxiety, depression, and psychological trauma for the victim.

The types of emotional abuse may be-

• verbal abuse such as blaming, insulting, labeling, threatening, swearing, etc.
• non-verbal abuse such as ignoring, rejection, bullying, spying, etc.

Dealing with emotional abuse:

• Accept that emotional abuse is not because of you, i.e., don’t justify the actions of the abuser.
• Respond assertively to the abuser but seek distance from him/her.
• Give yourself time to heal.
• Prioritize your self-care, e.g., eating right, exercise, etc.
• Mobilize support from family and friends. If needed, seek professional help.

Managing Emotions:
Managing of emotions is an important life skill. Managing emotions can be defined as, ‘the ability to be open to feelings and modulate them in oneself and in others, so as to promote personal understanding and growth.

Sometimes, our emotions hijack our thinking due to which we act impulsively. This is because the limbic system (emotional section) developed before the prefrontal cortex (thinking part) and is hence, an extremely strong part of the brain. Emotional management is an art as it is a form of expression as well as a science as it is a skill that needs to be learned and practiced.

Anger Management:
Anger is a common emotion that everybody experiences in life from time to time. Anger is a normal response to some real or perceived threat. It is a protective emotion that helps us to defend ourselves against physical or psychological harm.

However, anger may also be unwanted, irrational, and destructive. When we experience anger, our amygdala goes into action and overrides the cerebral cortex which is in control of thinking and evaluation.

Triggers of Anger refer to any event that signals the brain to activate the body’s anger system. The triggers of anger maybe

• verbal, for e.g., being blamed, disrespected, or abused
• nonverbal, for e.g., being ignored unappreciated, or rejected,
• physical such as physical threats, sexual/ physical assault, etc.

There are three factors involved in the experience of anger: A trigger (causes of anger) → individual’s personality → particular interpretation of that situation.

As the experience of anger is subjective, it can be controlled too. If we understand the triggers of anger, we can anticipate potential anger episodes and provide an intentional/ acceptable response.

Anger management is an intervention programme to prevent anger from turning into a habit or obstacle. It enables the person to create an awareness of and responsibility for his/her emotions.

This involves two aspects

1. managing one’s own anger
2. learning to respond effectively to anger in others.

The 3 R’s in anger management are Relax, Reassess and Respond:
Relaxation – Relaxation, and connection with the inner self enhances thinking and concentration and helps to respond rather than react impulsively.

Reassess – helps to revisit the situation objectively. It involves

• taking complete responsibility for your emotion
• developing empathy for the person you perceive has wronged you
• conduct a reality check e.g., is your anger justified given the facts of what happened.

Respond – This involves using anger as a motivation to change. It includes

• consulting a trustworthy person to get another perspective
• engage in talks with the other party in a calm manner
• active listening and assertive speaking
• cage your rage i.e. establish boundaries and moderate your anger.

Glossary:

→ Anger – A basic emotion expressing dislike or displeasure.

→ Emotions – A complex response pattern that involves physiological arousal, expression of behaviors, and conscious experience.

→ Emotional abuse – It is a non-physical form of abuse in which an individual purposely subjects another to behaviors such as intimidation, isolation humiliation, rejection, and verbal abuse.

→ Emotional well-being – It is an overall positive state of one’s emotions.

→ Trigger – An event or stimuli that cause a reaction.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me

Introduction:

• Life’s success depends on mental and emotional well-being.
• Hence, EQ is also as important as IQ.
• Normal behaviour: Well-adjusted individuals
• Abnormal behaviour: Mal-adjusted individuals

Criteria of well-adjusted individuals:

• Realistic perception of self and world: Knowing own strengths and weaknesses and accepting the world as it is.
• Openness to new experiences: Being comfortable towards changes and unknown people.
• High emotional intelligence: Appropriate understanding and management of emotions.
• Healthy relationships: Being able to honour differences, help others and make them feel special.
• High self-esteem: Feeling important, worthy and valuable about oneself.
• It’s rare for a person to possess all the criteria of a well-adjusted individual.
• Also, well-adjusted individuals can face discomfort in certain situations.

Components of emotional intelligence:
Self:

• Self-awareness: Being aware of one’s emotions, desires, motivations and actions.
• Self-regulation: Controlling emotions and restraining inappropriate actions.
• Self-motivation: Pushing oneself towards a goal without any external reward.

Social:

1. Social skills: Ability to comfortably interact with others.
2. Empathy: Ability to put yourself in other’s shoes and understand their pain.

Important aspects of healthy relationships:

1. Being honest
2. Being fair
3. Being respectful
4. Being non-threatening
5. Being a responsible parent
6. Having shared responsibilities
7. Having economic partnership
8. Having trust and support.

The vicious cycle of low self-esteem:

1. Low self-esteem → Negative thoughts →High anxiety → Poor Performance → Failure → Self-blame → Low self-esteem.
2. High self-esteem builds confidence and leads to healthy social interactions and further boosts self-esteem.

Criteria of abnormal Behaviour:

• Deviance: Behaviour going against the laws or set social and statistical standards.
• Personal distress: Feeling very low or depressed on continuous basis.
• Failure to perform functions normally: Day-to-day functioning getting impaired.
• The behaviour can’t be judged on the basis of only one criterion.

Perspectives on abnormal behaviour:

1. Biological: Abnormal behaviour is due to a chemical imbalance or physiological factors.
2. Socio-cultural: Abnormal behaviour is learned within the social context.
3. Behavioural: Abnormal behaviour is due to ineffective learning and conditioning.
4. Evolutionary: Abnormal behaviour is an exaggerated form of adaptive action.
5. Humanistic: Abnormal behaviour arises from blocked personal growth.
6. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic: Abnormal behaviour is due to unconscious and unresolved conflicts.
7. Cognitive: Abnormal behaviour arises due to false assumptions and faulty thinking.

Two models that explain the causes of abnormal behaviour:
Stress-Diathesis model:

• Disorder = Nature (Biological and genetic factors) + Nurture (Life experiences) of abnormal
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder are more likely behaviour to show abnormal behaviour when exposed to environmental stress.

Biopsychosocial model:

• Abnormal behaviour = Biological factors + Psychological factors + Sociocultural factors
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder develop abnormalities if exposed to a disturbing and hostile environment, If exposed to nurturing and protective environment, there are fewer chances.

Challenges faced by adolescents:

• Lack of self-confidence: Not feeling positive about oneself.
• Sexual orientation: Recognising and understanding their sexual preferences.
• Gender Identity: Recognising and identifying if their gender corresponds with their birth sex.
• Bullying: Outside of their protective homes, chances of being bullied.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development

Introduction:

1. The term ‘Human Development’ means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience.
2. Hereditary factors, as well as physical and social environment, determine development.
3. Development occurs at an appropriate time in physical, cognitive, emotional as well as social aspects.

Characteristics of development:

• Development follows a specific pattern.
• Development takes place in specific direction.
• Development is continuous.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.
• There are individual differences in development.
• The rate of development is different for different body parts.
• Development leads to integration.
• Certain behavioural problems are normal for a particular stage.
• Development is predictable.
• The child develops as a unified whole.

Growth maturation and development:

• Growth refers to physical changes as the age advances.
• Maturation refers to a natural unfolding of the genetic potential at the appropriate time,
• Development is qualitative change and it includes physical as well as mental changes.
• The concepts of growth, maturation and development are parallel, i.e. an individual grows, matures and develops simultaneously.

Developmental Stages:

1. Human life proceeds in stages.
2. Broadly, human development can be classified into prenatal and postnatal stages.
3. A period between conception till birth is called prenatal period while period after birth till death is called postnatal period.
4. The stages in prenatal period are germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage while post-natal period consists of neonatal stage, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, late adulthood and old age.
5. Each stage is associated with a different set of characteristics and problems.