Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Contemporary India: Good Governance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Political Science Notes Chapter 5 Contemporary India: Good Governance

Introduction

→ Meaning of Governance: In development administration, not only the government but also citizens and NGO’s play a vital role. The term ‘governance’ is used to describe this cooperative effort of the government and non-governmental bodies in public administration.

Governance is broader than government as :

→ It includes formal institutions of government e.g., legislature, bureaucracy as well as informal institutions e.g. NGO’s.

→ It aims to improve the performance of public institutions with focus on values like accountability, transparency, citizen feedback, etc.

In the 1990s several changes took place in the world:

→ Globalisation of the world economy – This included technological revolution, growth of social networking and transparency in the administrative system. There were changes in international economic relations due to which investment and trade and commerce became important.

→ International Institutions – International funding agencies like IMF, World Bank, UNDP have become influential in bringing about administrative reforms in Third World Nations.

→ Non-State actors – NGO’s, private sector organizations, civil society have started to play a greater role in public administration.

Meaning Of Good Governance:

The Good Governance approach aims at the following.

• to reform the traditional, huge-sized public administration which was riddled with red tape and corruption.
• to replace the archaic systems with responsible, participative and equitable systems.
• to look at interlinkages between government and civil society.
• to make the administration citizen-centred and not merely rule-bound.

Value Of Good Governance

→ Participation – The effective functioning of any democratic system requires that people get an opportunity to participate in the process of decision making and its implementation.

→  Rule of law -The constitution and law of the land is a core value of good governance. It ensures a just and fair polity where rights of citizens are safeguarded.

→ Effectiveness and efficiency – All processes and institutions must produce results that meet the needs of society but also making sustainable use of natural resources and protecting the environment.

→ Consensus oriented – Good governance requires dialogue between various sections of society to reach consensus on what is best for the entire community and how to achieve it. It requires a long-term perspective on how to best achieve the goals of sustainable human development.

→ Responsiveness – The government must be prompt and sensitive while designing policies to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

→ Equity and inclusiveness – No stakeholder, especially the vulnerable should feel excluded from the mainstream of society. All persons should have opportunities to improve their well-being.

→  Transparency – This value of good governance enables people to keep the government under scrutiny for e.g. Right to Information Act (2005) provides citizens access to information about public policies and actions

→ Accountability: This cannot be enforced without the rule of law and transparency. Any organization is accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions and actions, i.e., to stakeholders. Governmental institutions, private sector and civil society institutions must be accountable

Initiatives For Good Governance In India:
After independence, India adopted a socialist model of development which aimed at achieving a Welfare State. The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances looks after administrative reforms in India.

Its objectives are –

• to promote administrative reforms in government policies and processes.
• to promote citizen-centric governance.
• to conduct innovations in e-governance.

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) was set up in 2005 to prepare a blueprint for revamping the public administration system in India.

It looked at the following issues

• To make public administration accountable, transparent, efficient, responsive and result-oriented.
• Citizen centric, participative administration.

Reform measures/initiatives for administration include:

• Simplifying administrative procedures, using technology to improve internal efficiency and reducing regulatory control.
• Enacting laws giving certain rights to citizens and setting up institutional mechanisms to
  redress grievances.

Specific Programmes To Bring About Good Governance In India:

Lokpal and Lokayukta: The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013) provides for the establishment of Lokpal (at the Union level) and Lokayuktas (in the States) to inquire into allegations of corruption against public officials. This is a commitment to a responsive, clean governance. The Maharashtra Lokayukta Institution came into being in 1972.

Citizen’s Charters: The exercise to formulate Citizen’s Charters began in 1996. Each organisation must spell out the services it has to perform and the standards/norms for these services. If these standards are not met then, that agency can be held accountable.

E-Governance: In the last few decades, governance has become more complex and varied. Citizens expectations from the government have also increased. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is used in governance. This is called ‘e-governance’.

It helps in

• instant transmission and processing information and efficient storing and retrieval of data.
• increasing the reach of government both geographically and demographically.
• speeding up decision making and increasing transparency and accountability of government processes.

E-governance in India has evolved from computerisation of departments to initiatives which are citizen-centric and service-oriented.

Six Pillars For Achieving The Vision Of E-Governance

Right to Information: It is a basic necessity of good governance which enables citizens to seek important public information from the government i.e., about public policies and actions. Transparency in government institutions makes them function more objectively and enables citizens to participate effectively in the governance process.

Citizen participation: Citizen participation refers to the following aspects.

→ The development process is a “bottom-up” approach in which citizens are not recipients but participants in this process.

→ Citizens have a right in making decisions pertaining to themselves.

→ There are modalities by which citizens can take control of resources or influence decision making.

→ It contributes to a responsive, participative democracy.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 India: Social and Religious Reforms students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 5 India: Social and Religious Reforms

→ The contribution of Indian social reformers in bringing about change in various aspects of human life especially in the social and educational fields is significant. The social reformers who studied under the new educational system introduced by the British were responsible for this transformation. They brought about social and religious reforms through various socio-religious movements. The efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy were the beginning point of these movements.

→ The progress of Indian society was stunted because of superstitions, orthodox way of life, caste discrimination, false social notions, lack of curiosity and rationality that prevailed on a large scale. Progressive values of ‘Freedom, Equality, Fraternity and Humanism’ were adopted to create mass awareness on various social and religious issues.

→ Several religious and social reform organisations came to be established in India. Some of them were the Prarthana Samaj, Satyashodhak Samaj, Arya Samaj to name a few.

→ Social reformers like Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan, Tarabai Shinde, Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde and many others worked for the upliftment of their own communities.

→ The rulers of princely states too were not far behind. For e.g., Maharaja Sayajirao Gaikwad and Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj.

→ As far as social reforms in Maharashtra are concerned, the list of people who devoted their lives for it is quite extensive. But a few prominent names are worth mentioning for e.g., Karmveer Bhaurao Patil, Punjabrao Deshmukh, Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve, Godavari Parulekar, Tarabai Modak and Anutai Wagh.

Glossary

→ Abolish – Formally put an end to (a system. practice or institution)

→ Mundane – Ordinary

→ Periyar – Great Soul

→ Satyagraha – Holding onto truth

→ Reformer – Improver, activist

→ Emancipation – Liberation,

→ freedom Propogation – To preach.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period

Mughal rule in India:
In the beginning of the 16th century, the political condition in India was somewhat disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi Sultanate broke down completely and many new independent kingdoms emerged in the North, Central and South India. The Bahamani kingdom got divided into five branches. The prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed by the five Islamic ruling houses in the South.

The Indians were not familiar with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of all this, the Mughals established their rule in India. The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could not survive in front of Babur in the battle of Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. Babur established his rule in Delhi.

The Rajput kings came together under the leadership of Mewar King Rana Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the throne. After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended the throne. He proved to be the greatest Mughal Emperor because of his qualities such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness and courage.

Reforms in revenue system:
Akbar made further reforms in the revenue system implemented by Shershah Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the Mughal revenue system. He graded the cultivable land-based on systematic land survey. The land was classified into four types on the basis of annual yield, i.e, fertile (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat) and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land holdings of farmers were registered.

Art, architecture, literature:
Art: The reign of the three emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of peace, order and prosperity. A new era began in the field of art and architecture. The etched designs on the marble walls of mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence of the highly advanced styles of art and architecture. The carved designs on the tombs of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj Mahal are its paramount examples.

During the period of Jahangir, paintings were done based on the court and hunting scenes. The paintings of this period were done in a more realistic style, which is vibrant and attractive.

Architecture: The architectural style during Sultanate period had great implements on strength and simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period of Babur, the Kabulbag Mosque at Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar Pradesh were built in Persian style.

The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings like Jama * Masjid, Buland Darwaza were built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the important forts like Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort, and Attock Fort. The use of Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches were the salient features of the architecture of this period.

The period of Shahjahan was the most glorious period of Mughal architecture. ‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red Fort, ‘Jama Masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra built by him is incomparable and immortal. Later, the Mughal architecture began to decline.

Literature: During the Mughal period excellent literature was created in Persian language. Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish languages. His autobiography known as ‘Baburnama’ is well-known. Another important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza Hyder wrote during the period of Humayun. Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’, ‘Lilavati’, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’, ‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’.

Abul Fazal wrote the famous Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-Akbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan, was a Sanskrit scholar. He translated text of several Upanishada texts in Persian language from Sanskrit. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikhi-Khafikhan’ is well-known.

Trade, industries, social life:
During the Mughal period, the transportation of goods within the empire had become speedy. New highways were built for internal trade. Highways were built from Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat, Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via sea route was mainly carried out from the ports on western coast such as Khambayat, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut.

The Indian merchants traded with merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia and some countries of European continent. Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar, ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many such items were exported to foreign countries from India. The goods imported to India included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc.

During the Mughal period, most of the population stayed in villages. Every village was self-sufficient. The law and order was managed and the daily needs were met at the village level. During this period, there were no major changes in the social organisation which was based on caste system.

Mughal Empire and Deccan:
During the rule of Babur and Humayun boundaries of the Mughal empire had no extended beyond North India. The main ruling powers to the South of river Narmada were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and Qutubshahi of Golconda.

In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah, successfully resisted the attack with courage and intelligent strategies.
During the period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom declined. Later, Aurangzeb was successful in uprooting them completely.

Glossary:

→ Descendant – Someone related to a person who live at an earlier time.

→ Aesthetics – Concerned with beauty or art.

→ Strategies – Set of plans to achieve something.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 5 Social Movements in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 5 Social Movements in India

→ Social movements are used to denote a wide variety of collective actions which attempt to bring about a change in a certain social systems or to create a new order or resist change.

→ The Women’s Movement began in the British era where many social reformers fought against unwanted and outdated customs. Through women’s movement, women have become aware of their rights and they have stood together to improve their position in the society.

→ The Workers’ Movement in India date backs to period of industrialization in the Indian society Exploitation of the workers where they faced various problems like long working hours, low wages, poor working conditions, lack of promotions, etc.

→ Which further saw formation of trade unions where workers came together and fought for their rights. This unit we will see role of trade unions in improving the worker s working conditions and resolve industrial disputes.

→ The Farmers’ Movements focuses on the lives of farmers, their livelihoods, land rights and farmers’ issues.

→ The Environment Movement has come up with various issues like global warming’s, ecology, save forest life, deforestation, tribal rights, preserve and protect environment.

Social Movements:

→ Meaning: Social movement is a collective effort by group of people with a common objective to promote or resist change in the society

→ Features: Collective action, Ideologies and objectives, Pre-planned leadership, Social change

→ Factors: Cultural drift, Social disorganisation, Perceived social injustice, Normative structures.

Types of Social Movements:

Women’s Movement India:

Worker’s Movement:

Farmers Movement:

→  Exploitation of Zamindar’s, moneylenders, exorbitant rates of land revenue all these led to growth of peasant movements in the absence of proper leaderships.

→ Emergence of Peasant Organization (Kisan Sabha Movement), worsening of peasant position, culminating into a series of revolts.

→ Emergence of strong farmers’ organisation, industrialisation and Globalisation leading to agrarian crisis, and Farmers’ Strike.

Environmental Movement:

Emergence of the Environmental Movements in India:

→ Environmental Movement in India:
Modern environmentalism – 1960s. Awareness about environmental degradation and organisation of many activities.

→ Causal Issues:
Modern science and technology and inequalities in society reasons for environmental degradation.

→ Significant Environmental Movements in India:
It encompasses issues related to ecology, health, human rights, tribal rights, eco-feminism etc.

Chipko Movement:
Sundarlal Bahuguna -Chamoli district in the Himalayan rëgion, protest of the inhabitants by hugging the trees to save the forest from the contractors.

Narmada Bachao Aandolan:
Medha Patkar – Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Against the construction of Sardar Sarovar Damon the river Narmada and, against displacement of local inhabitants.

Abbreviations:

→ AITUC – All India Trade Union Congress

→ AIWC – All India Women’s Conference

→ BKU – Bharatiya Kisan Union

→ HMS – Hind Mazdoor Sabha

→ INTUC – Indian National Trade Union Congress

→ ILP – Independent Labour Party

→ NBA – Narmada Bachao Andolan

→ SEWA – Self Employed Women’s Association.

→ CTUO – Central Trade Union Organisation

→ BKD – Bharatiya Kranti Dal

→ BLD – Bharatiya Lok Dal

→ BMS – Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh

→ UTUC – United Trade Union Congress

→ CITU – Centre of Indian Trade Union.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Processes of Social Change In India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 4 Processes of Social Change In India

→ Indian society has undergone many changes. Sociologists have studied these changes and identified concepts to explain these changes.

→ The term social change refers to changes that takes place in the structure and functioning of social institutions.

Impact of processes of social change:

→ Industrialisation is a process whereby human energy to produce was replaced by mechanical process and machines to enable higher production.

→ Urbanisation is the process of migration of people from rural to urban areas.

→ Modernisation is the process where there is the use of scientific and rational thinking that is deep-seated.

→ Globalisation is basically an economic process that has opened the markets to a global economy.

→ Digitalisation is a process of the impact of computers on various aspects of life.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Diversity and Unity in Indian Society students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 3 Diversity and Unity in Indian Society

→ India is a land of diversities and yet there is a sense of we-feeling that unifies us, as a people.

Diversities are of various kinds:

Diversity in India:

Layered Regional Identities:

Factors that have contributed towards a sense of unity:

→ Geographical Unity- Sharing of the natural resources which cut across the length and breadth of India, festivals gives the people a sense of oneness.

→ Religious Unity- Religious unity in India finds its expression through places of worship scattered all over the country.

→ Political Unity- The Constitution of India has established the “rule of law” throughout the country.

Linguistic Unity:

The Three Language Formula

1. 1st language: Regional Language or Mother Tongue.
2. 2nd language: English or Modern Indian Language (in Hindi speaking States) Hindi or English (in non-Hindi speaking States)
3. 3rd language: English or modern Indian language in Hindi speaking states

→ Cultural Unity- Festivals like Diwali, Onam, Eid, Raksha Bandhan, New Year, Christmas are remembered and celebrated all over the country.

Need for unity:

→ To strengthen and enrich our cultural Heritage

→ To protect the multiple diversities of Indian society

→ To protect Human Rights of all citizens.

→ To boost workplace, organizational and community morale.

→ For effective and inclusive Communication

→ For conflict resolution

→ For peaceful coexistence

→ For the welfare of all people irrespective of caste, creed, sex, gender, race, economic class, culture etc.

→ For prosperity of our land and its People.

Forces that threaten national unity as well as national integration:

→ Casteism: Casteism refers to loyalty to one’s own caste before loyalty to the nation.

→ Communalism: Communalism refers to loyalty to one’s own religion before the nation.

→ Regionalism: Regionalism refers to loyalty to one’s own State or region before one’s nation.

→ Linguism: It is a form of excess loyalty towards one’s own language.

→ Economic inequality: unequal distribution of wealth.

→ The need of the hour is to develop an empathetic understanding of our multiple diversities and work towards strengthening the overall sense of national unity and emotional integration.

→ Some policies must promote social cohesion and interdependence. So also, rights and responsibilities are for all.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Segments of Indian Society students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 2 Segments of Indian Society

Tribal Community

→ The tribal segment constitutes 8.6% of the different identity and are referred to by various names.

→ The Constitution of India calls them Scheduled Tribes.

→ Each tribe has its distinct identity (e.g., Warli, Mizo, Toda, Bhil, Jarawa. Gond, Santhal, Munda, Andamanese)

→ Tribes are found in various parts of India. They have their unique characteristics and their culture has set them apart from others.

→ However, due to contact with rural and urban people, tribal people have undergone many changes and this has impacted their way of life. There is cultural disintegration taking place in tribal areas.

→ After Independence, the Government of India has taken various efforts for Tribal Development.

Rural Community:

→ Most of India lives in its villages. Villages constitute the rural segment their predominant economic activity is agriculture. Institutions such as joint family, caste and panchayat are considered the pillars of rural society.

→ There are a large number of villages which suffer from major problems.

Problems of Indian rural community:

→ Several programmes have been started for rural development and reconstruction.

Urban Community:

→ Urban areas are distinct when compared to tribal and rural segments of Indian society. This is due to tertiary occupations like business, trade commerce, professions etc. urban areas are more heterogeneous, impersonal and individualistic

→ Urban areas have their own set of problems from inadequate infrastructure to meeting growing demands, crime, poverty, class extremes, alienation, environmental pollution, diseases etc.

Major Urban Problems:

→ The government has taken up various programmes for urban development. Several steps have been initiated to meet the challenges posed by the urban crisis.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 1 Introduction To Indian Society students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 1 Introduction To Indian Society

The study of our past has been broadly divided into three periods :

1. Ancient and Medieval India
2. Colonial period
3. Post-Independence period.

Religious beliefs and practices:

→ The impact of three ancient indigenous religions: Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are significant especially up to the end of the Later Vedic period.

→ The Vedic period is usually divided into: Early Vedic Period (c. 100 BCE to 10000 BCE) and Later Vedic Period (c.1000 BCE to c.500 BCE).

→ For Hindus, the Puranas and Dharmashastras laid out a Code of Conduct based on the Law of Karma (Action) rebirth, until it can attain moksha (salvation).

→ Jainism is said to have been revealed by 24 Tirthankaras of which Vardhaman Mahavir was the last. Ahimsa (non-harming) and Tapas (penance) are important and integral components of the Jain way of life.

→ Buddha, with his teachings, advocated the middle path based on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

→ The Medieval Period (c. 650 CE – c. 1500 CE), saw several religions come to India from outside. These include Judaism, Christianity, Islam and much later Zoroastrianism.

→ The Sangham Period (6th century BCE to 3rd century CE) is the period of history of ancient peninsular India.

→ The roots of Zoroastrianism are found in the Middle East region.

→ People of Jewish faith are believed to be one of the early foreign religions to come to India.

→ It is in the 1st century CE that Saint Thomas, an Apostle of Jesus Christ, brought Christianity to the shores of Malabar in South India.

→ Islam first came to India in the 8th century CE, the impact and influence of the religion is seen only much later.

→ Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam also preaches Monotheism and the faith centres on the Holy Quran. Muslims believe in the Five Pillars of Faith.

→ Sikhism emerged in the late 15th century CE and was founded by Guru Nanak (1469 CE – 1539 CE). Like Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, Sikhism too preached the Karma theory.

→ The Bhakti movement emerged with the need to bring religious reform in Hinduism during the medieval period.

Status of Women in Education:

• Indian women enjoyed a comparatively high status during the early Vedic period.
• The Later Vedic period witnessed a decline in the status of women in society.
• The status of women deteriorated even further in Medieval India.

Nature of education:

→ During the Early Vedic period the content of education was based on sacred literature which was written in Sanskrit.

→ Vardhaman Mahavir was a religious teacher for three decades.

→ The Buddhist system of education was conducted through Buddhist monasteries.

→ Education in the Sangham period was a widespread social activity.

→ The decline of Buddhist Viharas is significant as it marked the decline of an organised system of education.

→ Education during the medieval period is centred on the Quran.

Social Life:

→ Harappan civilisation was known for its well-planned towns.

→ Sangham. literature makes reference to tribes and traditional castes. This is indicative of their coexistence.

→ The Varna System during Vedic period referred to the social order or class of people. Ashramvyavastha was prescribed for the so-called twice-born castes.

→ This referred to the four stages in the life of a Hindu. The Classical Period (i.e., the period of the Gupta Dynasty) believed to be the ‘Golden Age. During the Delhi Sultanate, society experienced a synthesis of Indian and Islamic culture.

Urbanisation:

→ The Harappan civilisation suggest that Harappa was indeed a well-planned town with a ‘way of life’ that can be referred to as ‘first urbanisation’.

→ The period c.500 BCE to c.200 BCE is considered the period of ‘second urbanisation’ which brought a large-scale beginning of town life in the middle Gangetic basin.

Colonial Period:

Consequences of Colonialism in India:

→ Education: The British set up a system of education which was secular in nature, had far-reaching impact on Indian society and which led to the rise of a new class of intelligentsia,

→ Culture: Many of the educated elite took to the lifestyle of the British, this process of imitation was referred by M.N. Srinivasan as westernisation.

→ Administration: The British set in new systems of administration. A new judiciary system was created, which took into consideration the earlier legal traditions of the Indian communities. However, its implementation was carried out on a secular basis.

→ Economy: The economic system got transformed by industrial growth and urbanisation.

→ Transport and Communication: Development of transportation and communication led to an increase in market outlets for Indian raw materials.

→ The Nationalist Movement: The 19th century saw the emergence of the Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi as the key figure in the call for independence.

→  Social Reform Movements: The 19th century is witness to the emergence of many social and religious reform movements.

→ Social Legislation: The increase in the number of reformative groups enabled Indians to exert pressure upon the British government, For passing laws against prevalent social evils.

Post-Independent Period:

→ Constitution of India: The Constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly, founded on 6th December 1946 which recognises various diversity of Indian society.

→ Legislation: Several laws related to civil and criminal matters have been enacted, which may be amended or repealed from time to time.

→ Economy: The economic growth of India until recently was guided by Planned Development, through twelve Five-Year Plan.

→ Education: There has been significant expansion of number of educational institutions.

→ Polity: In Post-Independent India, a system of governance based on the principle of democracy has been adopted by us.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Forms of Market students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Economics Notes Chapter 5 Forms of Market

→ Market in Economics refers to an arrangement through which buyers and sellers come in close contact with each other directly or indirectly for exchange of goods and services at a particular price. This may be by way of telephone, internet, etc. Thus, the essentials of market are

1. There are many buyers and sellers.
2. Market involves exchange of goods and services.
3. There is a price for a commodity.
4. They have either direct or indirect contact.
5. They may be spread over to a place, region, country or world without knowing each other e.g. We buy things through Amazon.

Classification of Market:
Market can be classified on the basis of place, time and competition.

1. On the basis of place: These can be further divided into :

→ Local Market: When goods are produced and sold in local areas mainly then market for such goods is called local market. E.g. perishable goods or bulky goods like bricks.

→ Regional Market: When goods have market within a particular region, market for such goods is called regional market. E.g. Regional movies mainly have regional market.

→ National Market: Market confined to a domestic market in a country is called national market. E.g. cars, scooters, T.V., etc.

→ International Market: Goods which can be sold in any part of the world have international market. E.g. tea, coffee, petroleum, etc.

2. On the basis of Time: These can be further divided into :

→ Very Short Period Market: A market which lasts for a few days or maximum a week, is called very short period market. E.g. for fruits market, vegetables market, etc.

→ Short Period Market: When the supply of the product can be increased to some extent say upto one year with the help of available raw material, then market to such goods is called short period market.

→ Long Period Market: It is a market from one year to five years when the supply can be increased on demand.

→ Very Long Period Market: It is a market for more than five years when supply can be fully adjusted to demand.

On the basis of Competition: These can be of following types:

→ Perfect Competition

→ Imperfect Competition: This is further divided into :

• Monopoly,
• Oligopoly,
• Monopolistic competition.

Perfect Competition: In Perfect competition, there are large number of buyers and sellers engaged in buying and selling a homogeneous product at a single uniform price in the market. Its main features are –

• Large number of buyers and sellers
• Homogeneous products
• Free entry and exit of firms
• Uniform price or price taker
• Perfect knowledge
• Perfect mobility of factors
• No transport cost
• No government intervention

Price determination under Perfect Competition: In this market, price is determined at the point of intersection of demand and supply curves in the market. This is called equilibrium price where quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied as follows:

In this diagram, demand and supply curves intersect at point E, where sellers are ready to sell OQ quantity at price OP and buyers O are ready to buy OQ quantity at price OP. If price rises or falls, changes in demand and supply bring the price back to equilibrium level.

Imperfect Competition: It is a type of market which has some features of perfect competition. It may be of following types: Monopoly, Oligopoly, Monopolistic competition.

(I) Monopoly: It is a market in which there is only one seller who has complete control over the market supply and there are no close substitutes. Its main features are:

• Single seller
• Large number of buyers
• No close substitutes
• Entry barriers
• Price maker
• Price discrimination
• Control oversupply
• Aims at profit maximisation
• No difference between firm and industry

Types of Monopoly:
It can be of following types:-

1. Natural monopoly
2. Legal monopoly
3. Joint monopoly
4. Simple monopoly
5. Discriminating monopoly
6. Private monopoly
7. Public monopoly

(II) Oligopoly: On the basis of competition, oligopoly market is one in which there are a few sellers selling homogeneous or differentiated products which are close substitutes of each other. E.g.
cement companies, baby foods, etc. Its main features are –

• Large number of buyers
• A few sellers
• Interdependence
• Selling cost
• Entry barriers
• Uncertainty
• Lack of uniformity

(III) Monopolistic Competition: It is a market in which there are large number of buyers and fairly large number of sellers producing similar or differentiated products which are close substitutes of each other. It has some elements of monopoly and some elements of competition. Therefore, this market is known as monopolistic competition. e.g. market for vegetable oil, washing powders, soaps etc. Its main features are –

• Large number of buyers
• Fairly large number of sellers
• Product differentiation
• Free entry and exit of firms
• Selling cost
• Downward sloping demand curve
• Concept of group

Thus, market is said to exist when:

1. There are many buyers and sellers.
2. They may be spread either to a place, region, country or world.
3. Goods are bought and sold at a price.
4. People have the knowledge about market price.
5. Freedom of entry and exit of firms.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Intelligence students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Intelligence

Meaning And Perspectives On Intelligence:

• Intelligence is the highest attribute of human beings. Different psychologists have defined intelligence differently.
• Lewis Terman explains intelligence as, “an ability to think on an abstract level.”
• David Wechsler defines intelligence as, “the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.”

The two main perspectives on intelligence are –

Intelligence as a single, general ability – The classical notion of intelligence explains it as an unitary ability and only the functions of intelligence may take different forms. Psychologists like Alfred Binet, David Wechsler, William Stern and Lewis Terman believed that intelligence is a single index of cognitive abilities.

Intelligence as a set of multiple abilities – The modern view of intelligence as explained by psychologists like Charles Spearman, E.L. Thorndike, Howard Gardner, etc., states that multiple abilities are involved in intelligence. They believe that distinct types of intelligences exist.

• E. L. Thorndike – explained that intelligence consists of three independent abilities viz. Abstract intelligence, Social intelligence and Concrete intelligence.
• Louis Thurstone – explained that intelligence consists of seven Primary Mental Abilities viz. verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, reasoning and perceptual speed.
• Charles Spearman – proposed the Two Factor Theory of Intelligence i.e. General factor (g) minimum competence and Specific factor (s) specific abilities which are required to solve problems.
• Raymond Cattell and John Horn – The two types of intelligence are 1) fluid intelligence – dependent on neurological development, 2) crystallized intelligence – function of knowledge, experience.
• Howard Gardner – Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983) – There are nine independent types of intelligence viz. linguistic,logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential intelligence.

Measurement Of Intelligence:
Sir Francis Galton thought that he could determine intelligence by measuring the size of the human skull. He administered a battery of tests to measure variables such as head size, reaction time, visual acuity, etc. However, these tests did not prove useful to measure intelligence.

Raymond Cattell used the term ‘mental test’ for the first time. Like his mentor, Sir Galton, Cattell also believed that intelligence is best measured by sensory tasks. However, be emphasized that test administration must be standardized.

In 1905, Alfred Binet in collaboration with Theodore Simon published the First Scale of Intelligence. This scale was revised in 1908 and 1911. In 1916, Lewis Terman revised the scale, i.e., adapted few items, established new age norms etc. This came to be called ‘Stanford Binet Test’.

In 1917, Robert Yerkes and his colleagues developed the Army Alpha (verbal test) and Army Beta (performance test) intelligence tests. These two tests were used to recruit soldiers during the First World War. In 1939, during Second World War II also, to recruit army personnel, the Army General Classification Test was used.

In 1939, David Wechsler published the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test. In 1955, the test was revised and then called Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). It has a verbal scale and performance scale.

Wechsler also developed a test to measure the intelligence of children, i.e., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). In 2008, Pearson released the WAIS-IV.

Mental Age – Alfred Binet introduced the concept of Mental Age. It is defined as the age at which the person successfully performs on all items of the test prepared for that age level. Mental Age need not correspond to Chronological Age. If Mental Age (MA) is the same as Chronological Age (CA), the person has average intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient – In 1912, William Stern introduced the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Terman refined the formula for calculating IQ which is as stated below –
IQ = \(\frac{\mathrm{MA}}{\mathrm{CA}}\) × 100

Types Of Intelligence Tests

Individual tests of intelligence – Individual tests of intelligence are tests which can be administered to a single person at a time, for e.g., Stanford Binet Scales, WAIS, Koh’s Block Design Test, etc. They require a trained, skilled psychologist to administer, score and interpret the test. Individual tests are more capable of measuring productive thinking.

Group tests of intelligence – Group tests of intelligence are tests that can be administered to more than one person at a time, i.e., for mass testing, for e.g., Army Alpha and Army Beta Test, Otis self-administration tests, etc. Group tests require less time consuming and more economical. However, they are less capable of measuring the creative aspect of intelligence.

Verbal tests of intelligence – Verbal tests of intelligence make use of words and numbers to measure intelligence. Subjects respond verbally to the test items, for e.g., WAIS, Army Alpha Test, etc. These tests are culture-bound but are useful to measure higher mental abilities.

Non-verbal tests of intelligence – Non-verbal tests of intelligence do not use language to measure intelligence.

They make use of pictures, designs, objects, etc. Such tests maybe

• Performance tests, e.g., Koh’s Block Design Test or
• Paper-pencil test e.g., Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices.

Non-verbal tests are culture-free and are also suitable for use with illiterate persons, children, etc. However, they are less suitable to measure higher mental abilities.

Application Of Intelligence Testing:

• Effective Schooling – On the basis of intelligence test scores, teachers can classify students into intellectual categories and devise special instructional programmes suited to their mental development.
• Aids Mental Health Personnel – Intelligence tests are helpful to Mental Health personnel such as psychologists etc., for diagnosis purposes and therapy.
• Effective Parenting – Parents can provide appropriate educational facilities to their children based on their IQ scores.
• Career Counselling – Scores obtained on intelligence tests help the student to select the right educational options/ courses.
• Vocational Counselling – Individuals can choose a suitable career and achieve job satisfaction when they make a realistic choice of vocation based on IQ scores.

New Trends In Intelligence:
Social Intelligence:
E.L. Thorndike proposed the term social intelligence. Howard Gardner included interpersonal intelligence in the Multiple Intelligences Theory. According to Karl Albrecht, “Social intelligence is the ability to get along well with others and to get them to cooperate with oneself’.

A continued pattern of nourishing behaviour indicates a high level of social intelligence. Such persons are skilled at interacting with and understanding people around them. They respect and encourage others. They effectively comprehend social dynamics.

Emotional Intelligence (El):
The term emotional intelligence was used for the first time by John Mayer and Peter Salovey. The concept of emotional intelligence was popularized by Daniel Goleman. It is defined as ‘the ability to perceive and monitor one’s own and others emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Emotional intelligence refers to a set of cognitive abilities such as perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions and managing (regulating) emotions. Persons with high emotional intelligence tend to be emotionally stable, patient, optimistic, enthusiastic and calm.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):
The term artificial intelligence was suggested by John McCarthy. Artificial intelligence is an innovation created by human intelligence. It is a field of study that combines computer science, algorithms, psychology, etc. It refers to enabling software programmes and computer systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, weather forecasting, language translations, etc.

Artificial intelligence can take decisions only on the basis of stored information and so it cannot be an alternative to human intelligence. Artificial intelligence has immense applications in daily life as well as to solve critical problems such as drones, Robotic Process Automation, medical diagnosis, etc.

Glossary:

→ Artificial Intelligence – A subfield computer science enabling software programs to run machines just like human intelligence

→ Emotional Intelligence – An individual’s ability to perceive. assess, evaluate and regulate one’s own and other’s emotions accurately.

→ Intelligence Quotient – The standard score of an individual’s intelligence based on an intelligence test, It is also known as IQ.

→ Mental age – Is a measure of a child’s performance on an intelligence test and relative to the performance of other children of the same age on the same test.

→ Performance tests – Any test that requires the individual to perform or do something such as completing a task or manipulating abjects rather than respond using language.

→ Social Intelligence – An individual’s ability Lo effectively relate to others.

→ Verbal tests – They make use of words and numbers to measure intelligence and subjects respond verbally to the test items.

→ Individual tests – They are tests which can be administered to a single person at a time.

→ Group tests – They are Lists that can be administered to more than one person at a time.

→ Intelligence – The aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.