Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 8 Memory

Introduction:

• Memory is an ability by which information ¡s encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.
• The hippocampus plays an important role in the storage of memory.
• Memory functions to preserve our sense of identity, interpersonal relationships, solving problems, and making decisions.
• Three basic processes of memory are Encoding! acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval.
• Three stages of memory are Sensory information store, Short Term Memory (STM), and Long Term Memory (LTM).
• Baddeley called STM a working bench of memory. He has given the working memory model.

Measurement of memory:

• The major ways of measuring memory are: Recall, Recognition and Relearning.
• Recall method: It involves remembering a fact, event or object that is not currently
  physically present and requires a direct uncovering of information from memory. Recall can be free or serial.
• Recognition method: Here, a person has to point out or recognise previously learnt material which is presented to him in a different context. It is relatively easier than the recall method.
• Relearning method: It measures retention by measuring how much faster one learns a previously learnt material after time interval. It is also known as saving method as there is saving of time when one relearns the same material.

Some phenomena related to memory:

1. Flashbulb memory: Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion-provoking event. These memories are preserved in autobiographical in considerable detail, almost like a photograph.
2. Tip of the tongue phenomenon: Sometimes when we search through library of memory experiences to retrieve information from LTM, we cannot recall it even when we have that information on the tip of the tongue.

Forgetting and its causes:

1. Forgetting is the failure to retrieve the material from long-term memory.
2. The pioneer of experiments on forgetting was Hermann Ebbinghaus.
3. The various causes of forgetting are trace decay, trace distortion interference, and motivated forgetting.

Memory improvement techniques:

• Keyword method: Here, any two different pieces of information can be linked together.
• Encoding specificity: It states that memory ¡s improved when information is available while learning is also available at the time to recall.
• Method of loci: It involves creating an imaginary route to remember better.
• Mnemonic devices: Mnemonics include acronyms or the first letter technique.
• Practice and rehearsal: It results in better retention and recall.
• Minimizing interference: We should not learn similar subjects together.
• POWER method: Here, P stands for Preparation, O stands for Organisation, W stands for Work, E stands for Evaluation, and R stands for Rethinking.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 6 Second Urbanisation in India

Rise of Mahajanpadas:
By 600 B.C.E. sixteen Mahajanapadas were established in India, from the northwest region to Magadha. Conquering other Janapadas and annexing their territory permanently to one’s own, became a regular practice in the times of Mahajanapadas. Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the creation of the large empire like Magadha. Ancient India once again witnessed the rise of cities. This process is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada:
Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas or Assak is identified with the region of present-day Maharashtra. Ashmaka/Assaka was the only Mahajanapada that was situated in the region known as ‘Dakshinapatha’. Remaining fifteen Mahajanapadas were in north India. Suttanipata describes the region of Dakshinapatha in great details. It was the region of an important trading route.

Second Urbanisation in India:
The Janapadas with definite geographic borders and administrative system were established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The ambition to expand geographic boundaries and the political conflict caused by it left some Janapadas more powerful than others.

It resulted into the creation of sixteen Mahajanapada from Afghanistan in the northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching to the banks of the Godavari in the south. The capital cities of the Mahajanapadas and some other cities, which flourished because of prospering trade once again brought the age of urbanisation in India. It is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’.

Mahajanapadas and The Contemporary Cities:
Kasi: This Mahajanapada was a powerful one in the beginning of the Mahajanapada period. Varanasi was its capital. The kings of Kasi were ambitious. According to the jataka stories they aspired for the highest position among all contemporary kings (Sabbarajunam aggaraja).

Kosala: Ancient Kosala encompassed the regions of Uttar Pradesh in India and Lumbini in Nepal. Sharavasti was its capital city. King Prasenjit (Pasenadi) was a disciple of Gautama Buddha. Kosala was destroyed and annexed permanently to Magadha by King Ajatashatru.

Anga: The city of Champa was the capital of Anga. It was a centre of the marine trade. It was permanently annexed to Magadha by King Bimbisara.

Magadha: Magadha had its first capital at the city of Girivraja, also known as Rajagriha. Girivraja was surrounded by five hills making it formidable for the enemies. King Bimbisara was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. The policy of territorial annexation of other kingdoms was started during the reign of Kind Bimbisara.

Vrujji/Vajji: This was a confederation of eight clans, known as ‘Maha Aththkula’. It included clans like Videha, Lichchhavi, Vajji, Shakya, Dnyatruk, etc. The ‘Ekapanna Jataka’ mentions that Vaishali, the capital of this Mahajanapada. was fortified with three surrounding walls. It had three entrance gates and bastions.

Malla: The city of Kushinara or Kushinagara (Kasia) in the Gorakhpur district was the capital of this Mahajanapada. Gautama Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at this city. A copper plate inscription (5th century C.E.) was found at the ‘Parinirvana Stupa’ in this city. It read, “Parinirvana chaitye TamraPatra iti”. By the 3rd century B.C.E. the Malla Mahajanapada was merged into the Maurya empire.

Chedi: This Mahajanapada had occupied Bundelkhand and the region around it. The city of Shuktimati or Sotthivati was its capital. It is supposed to have been situated near ‘Banda’ in Uttar Pradesh.

Vamsha or Vatsa: Kaushambi was the capital (Kosam near Allahabad) of this Mahajanapada. According to the tradition of Purana texts. Hastinapur was destroyed by a flood of Ganga and King Nichakshu, a descendant of the Pandavas had to shift his capital to Kaushambi. The protagonist of the play ‘Swapnavasavadatta’ written by Bhasa is KingUdayan. He was the king of the Vatsa Mahajanapada and the contemporary of Gautama Buddha.

Kuru: The capital of this Mahajanapada was located at Indrapat near Delhi. Its name was Indraprastha or Indrapattana. According to the Jataka literature, the kings of Indraprastha belonged to ‘Yudhitthil’ gotra.

Panchala: The Mahajanapada of Panchala was divided into, Uttara (north) Panchala and Dakshina (south) Panchala. The river Bhagirathi was the natural boundary that divided the Mahajanapada Ahichchhatra, the capital of Uttara Panchala was located near the village of Ramanagar, district Bareilley, Uttar Pradesh. Kampilya, present-day Kampil in the Farukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of Dakshina Panchala.

Matsya: The capital of this Mahajanapada was Viratnagar, which was located at Bairat in the Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Matsya was merged into the empire of Magadha at a later date. Bairat is one of the places where Ashokan edicts have been found.

Shoorasena: This Mahajanapada was located on the bank of the river Yamuna. Its capital was the city of Mathura. Greek historians have mentioned the name of the Mahajanapada as ‘Shursenoi’ and Mathura as ‘Methora’. Later, the Mahajanapada of Shoorsena was merged into the Maurya empire.

Ashmak/Assak: We have seen earlier that Potali was the capital of Ashmak Mahajanapada and probably it was a feudatory state of Kashi maha janapada.

Avanti: This Mahajanapada encompassed the region of Malwa, Nimad and its neighbouring regions in Madhya Pradesh. Avanti Mahajanapada was divided into Uttara Avanti and Dakshina Avanti. Ujjayini (Ujjain) was the capital of Uttar Avanti, while Mahishmati (Mandhata, District Khandwa) was the capital of Dakshina Avanti.

Gandhara: This Mahajanapada had spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan. Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara, who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara. He had established diplomatic relations with King Bimbisara.

Kamboja: This Mahajanapada is mentioned in the ancient literature along with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its capital. Kamboja was well-known for its excellent horses and its horsemen warriors for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people had resisted Sinkandara’s advent.

Mahajanapadas: Administrative System, Guilds
Administrative System: They were ‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’, ‘Maharajya’, ‘Saamrajya’ and ‘Parmeshthyi’. It is difficult to define these terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the term Rajya and Saamrajya in the context of sacrificial system.

According to it, the king who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’ performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’ under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’.

Guilds (Shrenis): Along with agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and systematic management and organisation of the trade are also essential factors for the prosperity of a state. The guilds of the merchants and the artisans played a great role in the growth of the Mahajanapadas into wealthy states.

These ‘ guilds had their own way of organisation and functioning. Guilds had their own, strict rules. Hence, they had a stringent structure. This stringent structure is perceived as one of the main reasons of the rise of the caste system.

Philosophy and Various Sects: At the end of the Vedic period questions about abstract aspects of human existence began to gain attention. It included questions about matters like the meaning of human life, its significance in the infinite nature of the universe, the mystery of death and the journey of the soul after death. It resulted in the creation of various philosophical texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’.

The latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’ school, which openly opposed the social organisation based on the Vedic authority, beliefs and rituals. This school also propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only those things, which are subject to sensory experience.

The 6th century B.C.E. is important from this point of view. The rising of a class of wandering mendicants known as ‘parivrajakas’ or ‘shramanas’, was characteristic of this period. They renounced the householder’s life and wandered with their disciples, in search of the ultimate truth. Among the various streams of thoughts, a large number of people were attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

New Religious Trends:
Jainism: The Jain religion has a tradition going back to very ancient times. According to the tradition of Jain religion, Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the last ‘Tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd Tirthankara. He gave four vows of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya) and non-possession (Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy (Brahmacharya) to it.

These five vows are known as ‘Panchmahavratas’. Mahavira founded the Jain Sangha. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya was a contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth principal Acharya of the Jain Sangha. According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta Maurya had embraced Jain religion. Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’ clan.

His mother, Trishaladevi was from the Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda. Vardhamana Mahavira addressed people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of common people. He preached about good behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to the five vows).

Buddhism: Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries. Gautama Buddha was horn in 563 B.C.E., in Lumbini Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s name was Shuddhodana. Ile was a member of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from the Koliya clan. Gautama Buddha’s wife was Yashodhara. Gautama Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge through various means, such as seeking guidance from various gurus and extreme austerities.

After realising that nothing of it was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya, under a peepal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the bank of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here he attained enlightenment at the age of 35. After that he was known as ‘Buddha’, ‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyarnuni’.

Gautama Buddha preached four ‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths).

1. There is Sorrow (Dukkha) everywhere in the world.
2. The root cause of sorrow is Greed (Trishna).
3. To conquer this greed is the way to cut the sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha).
4. The way to stop sorrow from emerging is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga).

Glossary:

→ Protagonist – The main character in a play, film or book.

→ Satrapy – A province governed by a satrap.

→ Guilds – A medieval association of craftsmen or merchants often having considerable powder.

→ Pluralism – A condition or system in which two or more principles or states coexist.

→ Trisaran – Refers to the ‘Triratnas’ of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 9 Disaster Management

→ Natural disasters have caused widespread loss of life and property.

Types of Disasters (Based on Origin)

Tectonic:

• Earthquakes
• Volcanic
• eruption
• Tsunamis

Geological:

• Landslides
• Mudslides
• Avalanches

Meteorological:

• Floods
• Cyclones
• Storms
• Heatwaves

Biological:

• Locust attacks
• Pest attacks
• Epidemics (flu, dengue, cholera, etc.

Arthropogenic/Man-made

• Industrial accidents
• Transportation accidents
• Nuclear accidents

→ Natural events that occur in nature and cannot be prevented are called hazards. When they occur in areas inhabited by humans and cause damage, they are termed as disasters.

Hazards :

• Hazards are phenomena that pose a threat to people, structural or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.
• They could be either naturally occurring in the environment or man-made.
• A hazard becomes a disaster when it affects human population, settlements and their activities.

Vulnerability :

• The geographical conditions and circumstances of people or region that make them susceptible to a disaster is known as vulnerability. Hence, if we are better prepared, we can reduce the risk of getting affected by disaster.
• Population living in certain areas are exposed to particular disasters.

Disaster	People/Areas affected
1. Cyclone	People living in coastal areas are more likely to be affected than those in the interior.
2. Earthquakes	People living in seismically active areas are prone to earthquakes.

Also, social, economic and political conditions may make people less or more likely to be affected by disasters, in the same region.

Example :

• The poor are more likely to be affected by disasters.
• Old people and children easily become victims of disasters.
• Densely populated areas more likely to be affected than sparsely populated areas.

Capacity to Cope :

• The ability of people, organisations and systems, using available skills and resources, to face and
  manage disasters is known as their capacity to cope. ,
• Vulnerability is reduced if capacity to cope with the disaster is high.

Effects of Disasters:

Effects of Disasters –

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary

1. Primary

• Occur as a result of the disaster itself

damage during a flood or an earthquake

2. Secondary:
Occur because of primary effects

• Fire ignited
• Disruption of electric power
• Water service as a result of earthquake

3. Tertiary
Long term effects are a result of primary and secondary effects

• Loss of homes
• Permanent changes in the position of river channel
• Storms
• Adverse effect on tourism in an earthquake-affected area

Disaster Management:
Disaster Management Disasters:

1. Preventable

• Gas leakage
• Rail accident

2. Non-preventable

• Volcanic eruptions
• Tsunamis
• Earthquakes (effect can be reduced)

3. Predictable

• Cyclones
• Floods

Disaster Management involves the following processes –

• Creating awareness about disasters.
• Taking steps to reduce its effects
• Evaluating the damage caused by the disasters providing relief, food and medical aid in affected areas involve many people, organisations and processes.

Disaster Management Tasks:

Disaster management tries to :

• Reduce risk to damages or losses.
• Focus on the hazard that causes the disaster.
• Attempt to minimize the adverse impact of the disaster on communities.
• Involve co-ordination from governments, local self-governments, police, military and para¬military forces, NGOs, doctors, scientists, planners, volunteers, groups or communities.

Disaster Management Cycle :

• Disaster Prevention → Disaster Mitigation → Disaster Preparedness.
• Pre-disaster planning is the process of preparing in advance to face disasters in future.

Disaster Preparedness :
It involves measures taken to prepare for and reduce effect of disasters.

Disasters Preparedness:

1. Carrying out awareness campaigns
2. Strengthening of the weak structures
3. Preparing plans for households
4. Preparing plans at community level

Mitigation :

• Mitigation is any measure taken to minimize the impact of a disaster before it occurs is known.
• It refers to action taken against potential disasters.
• It is carried out for those disasters which cannot be prevented.
• It helps the people by creating safer communities and reducing loss of life and property.

Mitigation Measures:

1. Community level disaster planning
2. Public awareness and information campaigns
3. Preparedness of hospitals
4. Construction of houses away from hazardous areas.

Mitigation Efforsts:

Structural Efforts:

• Construction of river embankments
• Strengthening existing buildings

Non-structural Efforts:

• Areas training in disaster management
• Regulating land-use
• Public education

Disaster Response :

• It is the way the community responds to the disaster.
• It reflects the preparedness of the community.
• It is the immediate period after the disaster strikes.
• It is concerned with providing food and shelter to the disaster victims, restoring normal condition and providing financial support.

Recovery :
These steps involve measures taken to bring life back to normal in affected areas.

Recovery:

• Restoration of basics services and repair of physical, social and economic damages
• Cleaning of debris
• Rebuilding roads and bridges
• Providing sustained medical care for displaced human and animal population

Rehabilitation :

• It is the last phase of disaster management.
• It involves :
  • Efforts taken to restore normalcy in the long term.
  • Providing housing to the affected, taking important decisions regarding economy, agriculture, etc., which have been affected by disasters.

Role of Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS in Disaster Management:

Remote Sensing :

• Remote sensing is very effective in mapping disaster prone areas, particularly flood – affected areas.
• Microwave data – Provides information on flood-inundated areas.
• Remote sensing satellites monitor the path of a cyclone.
• It can provide ample time with warning for evacuation and preparedness in advance.
• Data obtained from meteorological satellites is used for cyclone tracking, intensity and landfall predictions and forecasting of extreme weather events.
• Data from earth observation satellites is used for monitoring disaster events and assessing
  the damages. ,
• Communication satellites help to establish communication in remote and inaccessible areas.
  Navigation satellites are used for providing location-based services.

GPS (Global Positioning System): It is an important tool.

GIS:

• It has emerged as an important methodological tool for effective planning, communication and training in the various stages of the disaster management cycle.
• Plays a vital role in determining the extent of hazards and disasters.
• These techniques help in making planning and policy very easy for implementation.

Disaster Management in India :
Need : India’s geo-climatic conditions and its high degree of socio-economic vulnerability makes it one of the most disaster-prone country in the world.

Steps taken to mitigate the damage potential of national disasters in future at the Government of India level, two institutes were set up in New Delhi.

• The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has been established at the centre.
• SDMA has been established at the state level.
• District Authorities at District level.
• National Crisis Management Committee also functions at the centre.
• Ministry for Agriculture – For disasters like drought.
• Military forces, para-military forces such as Home Guard.
• ISRO, NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) also play an important role in disaster management.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Political Science Notes Chapter 1 The State

Introduction:
In this chapter, we shall cover the following political concepts –
(i) Nation and Nationalism (ii) State and Government.
The terms ‘state’, ‘nation’, ‘government’ appear to have the same meaning and are often used interchangeably. However, technically there is a difference in the meaning of these terms.

A Nation has a sense of ‘oneness’ that is psychological and is born out of commonness of ethnicity and race, culture and history, religion, language, etc. A State is a politically organized society within a definite territory. It is used to describe a sovereign country having an independent government in specific territory.

Nation:
Meaning: The word ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Nasci’ meaning ‘to be born’. Thus, the literal meaning of a nation is a people having a common race /ethnicity or cultural linkages.

Ernest Barker defines a nation as a body of men, inhabiting a definite territory, who normally are drawn from different races but possess a common stock of thoughts and feelings acquired and transmitted during the course of common history.

A nation refers to a large group of people, united in common bonds of geography, race, history, religion, language, sharing common objectives.

Features Of A Nation:

• Population: A nation must have a population that has a sense of ethnic, historical and cultural oneness.
• Feeling of community: The emotional dimension of a nation is a perception held by the population of psychological oneness i.e., they are a community.
• Desire to be politically separate: A feeling of unity and of being a nation is a product of the urge for ‘self-determination’. This can lead to a demand for self-governance. This signifies that people who feel united should have the right to decide the type of government that they prefer.

Nationalism:
Meaning: Nationalism is a force which binds the people to a sense of integrity and loyalty to their country. It is a spirit of oneness or common consciousness that binds a community together. Nationalism is a sense of political identity and emotional attachment to one’s ’homeland’.

Features Of Nationalism:

• Nationalism can be productive i.e., Progressive nationalism e.g., India’s freedom struggle or destructive i.e., Aggressive nationalism e.g., in Nazi Germany.
• Nationalism opposes imperialism and colonialism and thus encourages self-determination. Liberation /Freedom struggles all over the world are in resistance to foreign rule or any tyranny.
• Nationalism can help to promote diversity. The core of Indian nationalism is the idea of ‘unity in diversity in respect of religion, region, caste, language, etc.

Forms Of Nationalism:
The forms of nationalism from a political perspective are:

• Liberal Nationalism: Its origins are in the ideals of the French Revolution. President Woodrow Wilson linked the concept of a nation to the right to self-determination and sovereignty.
• Conservative Nationalism: It views a nation as a closely linked society with great importance to patriotism and the concept of ‘motherland’.
• Expansionist Nationalism: It is aggressive nationalism, which leads to imperialism, conquest and colonialism. It was seen in European imperialism by countries like England, Italy, Spain, France, etc.
• Anticolonial Nationalism: It refers to liberation struggles for independence from colonial rule, e.g., Indian or Indonesian freedom struggles from British and Dutch colonialism respectively.

The State:
The urge for political self-determination leads a nation toward statehood. A State is a political community which plays a role in almost every human activity like education, law and order, social welfare, etc.

Meaning of a State: Woodrow Wilson (USA) defined ‘a state is a people organised for law within a definite territory. A state is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent from external control and possessing an organized government to which the inhabitants render habitual obedience.

Elements of a State: The modern State has four essential elements.

Population: A State is an association of human beings. The progress of a state depends on the quality of population. Some states viz. China, India, etc. have a large population while some states have a small population viz. Monaco, Belgium, etc., The population may be homogeneous or diverse for e.g., USSR comprised of many nationalities like Russians, Ukrainians, Latvians, etc. Thus a ‘State’ may comprise of many ‘nations’.

Territory: A State is recognized by its territory. This includes the land area within its boundaries, airspace above the area and surrounding territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles). The area within which the State has the authority to govern is called its jurisdiction.

Some States have small territory e.g., Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives, etc., while other States e.g., Brazil, Russia, India, Australia have a large territory. Most States have compact territory e.g., India, while some states have a scattered territory e.g., Great Britain.

Government: This refers to the agency through which the will of the State is expressed. Modern governments have three organs viz. legislature, executive and judiciary. The Government must be independent. Institutions of the state are ‘public’ institutions and have legitimacy to act on behalf of the State.

These institutions are responsible for making and implementing laws to promote the general welfare of the people. There are various kinds of government based on their creation or style of functioning for e.g., democracy/ dictatorship, republic/monarchy, presidential/parliamentary, etc.

Sovereignty: It signifies the supreme power of the State internally as well as externally. It means an independent nation with its own constitution.

State And Government:
The government is an essential element of the State which is composed of a limited number of elected or nominated persons. It derives its power from the State. Its nature is administrative. A State cannot function in the absence of a government.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 8 Biomes

→ Natural vegetation and wildlife change according to latitudes. Hence, a variety of natural vegetation is found in different regions from the equator to the poles.

→ Biome : An area where different types of flora and fauna live together in the same region in the same type of climatic conditions is called a biome.

→ It is the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific conditions.

Elements of climate that affect the boundaries of biomes:

1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Amount of insolation received
5. Soil conditions

Biome:
The combined co-existence of flora and fauna which is a result of the region’s climate.
Ecosystem:
The interaction between biotic and abiotic factors.

Biotic Factors:
They consist of plants, various types of animals, bacteria, etc.
Abiotic Factors:
They consist of soil, water, sunlight and nutrients.

→ Through the abiotic factors, the biotic components receive supply of nutrients and energy.

Tropical Rainforest Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 0° to 10° N and S.
• Vegetation : Biodiversity is very high.
  Categorized into three layers – lowermost layer – bushes; middle layer low trees: third layer – tall, huge trees.
• Animal Life : Three-tier system of trees allows every bird and animal to have its own niche in the areas from the ground to the tree top.
• Human Life : Indigenous tribes live primitive lives.
  Practice primary occupations – like food-gathering and hunting.
• Use of Biome by Man : Hardwood is used in construction and making furniture.
  For this, some regions are being over exploited.
• Current Scenario: Degradation is increasing because of increasing agriculture and industrialisation. Rare species of animals and birds are threatened.

Tropical Deciduous Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: 5° to 30° N and S.

Vegetation: Deciduous Forests – trees drop leaves in dry season; they are dense and lush in rainy season.

Animal Life: A large diversity in fauna. Biodiversity found in these biomes ranks second in the world.

Human Life : Easier than that in the rainforest.
People practicing primary and secondary occupations based on forest are found here.
Various tribal communities inhabit these regions.
There are rural and urban areas, too.
These forests are being encroached upon.

Use of Biome :

• Wood from teak has many uses.
• Plants are used for medicines and secondary products.
• Bamboos are used for construction of houses and agriculture.
• Various fruits and spices are also obtained.

Current Status :

• Forests are in danger due to deforestation and wildfire.
• Wild species are endangered by humans through extensive use of fertilizers and spray of insecticides.
• This biome is influenced by human population.

Savannah Grassland Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent : 10° to 20° N and S.
• Vegetation : Grasslands with perennial cover of grass that grows 3 m to 6 m in height. Elephant Grass – thick, coarse, broad-leaved.
  Very few shrubs and trees found.
• Animal Life : The abundance of grass cover and its perennial nature makes savannah biomes rich in herbivore animals.
• Human Life Grass provides shelter to animals. Biome also supports carnivore animals. Comparatively difficult human life.
• Use of Biome In the past this biome was used to hunt for trophies and hence was known as a heaven for hunting.
• Current Status Victim of frequent forest fires; loss of biodiversity.
  Due to overgrazing, industrialisation and agriculture the area under grassland is decreasing, leading to extension of the Sahara Desert in Africa.

Tropical Desert Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent : 20° to 30° N and S
• Vegetation: Dispersed due to dry climatic conditions.
  Typical desert vegetation.
• Animal Life: Limited biodiversity. Few large animals in desert.
  Small animals – burrowing type.
  Birds and insects are also found.
• Human Life Human life is very difficult.
  Depending on the availability of water, animal husbandry or agriculture is followed.
  Human settlements found only near oasis, in a dispersed manner.
• UseofBiome : Dates are produced as food item.
  Agriculture with the help of irrigation. Mining is also an activity.
• Current Status : Desertification is increasing. ,

Mediterranean Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 30° to 40° N and S.
• Vegetation: Shorter trees.
  Mixed vegetation: evergreen and deciduous.
  Trees of citrus family, shrubs of coloured flowers.
• Animal Life: Herbivores, birds of prey, reptiles and various types of insects and honeybees.
• Human Life: Pleasant climate.
  Human life has flourished very well. Industries based on fruits and flowers. Tourism and development of cinema industry.
• Current Status: Tertiary occupations and urbanisation has increased.
  Biodiversity found in plants and animals is decreasing due to human interference.

Temperate Deciduous Biome :

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 50° N and S.
• Vegetation: Broad-leaved trees.
  3 levels of trees : tall trees, short trees, and shrubs.
  Hardwood and deciduous trees.
• Animal Life: Animals have thick and soft fur.
  Birds and insects are found.
• Human Life: Forests provide food, wood and ample amount of oxygen.
  Forests being encroached upon for agriculture.
• Current Status: Biome reducing due to agriculture and encroachment by settlements. Biodiversity has reduced.
  Habitat of animals is being encroached upon.

Temperate Grasslands Biome:

• Latitudinal Extent: 40° to 55° N and S.
• Vegetation: Soft grass is dominant.
  Not many types of trees.
• Animal Life: Rich and varied animal life.
  Herbivore animals are found.
• Human Life: Human settlements are sparse.
  Earlier, hunting was the main occupation. Presently, agriculture and animal rearing.
• Current Status : Commercial agriculture is increasing.
  Industries are increasing.
  Meadows and pastures are reducing because of over grazing.
  Biome is getting degraded.

Taiga Biome :

Latitudinal Extent : 50° to 55° N.

Vegetation :One type of tree species.
Evergreen coniferous forests.
Tall trees, tapering to the apex.
Waxy leaves and branches tapering to the ground do not let snow stay on the trees.

Animal Life: Animals have thick hides to survive the snow-covered ground.

Human Life: Climate is very cold, so human settlement is sparse.
Occupation is lumbering.
Saw mills, paper pulp, wooden furniture industries.

Current Status: Deforestation is easy because the wood is soft.

Tundra Biome:

Latitudinal Extent: 65° to 90° N.

Vegetation: It is the coldest biome.
Ground is frozen for 8 months of the year.
There is a layer of permanently frozen ground below the surface, called permafrost.
Vegetation has adapted to the cold and short growing season.

Animal Life: Very scarce animal life.
Animals have thick fur, layers of fats in their bodies to face the cold climate.

Human Life: Very sparse human settlements.
Recently life has changed and fishing methods have improved. Exploitation of fish is faster.

Current Status: Biome is experiencing more development due to increased transportation and means of communication.
Standard of life has improved.
Global warming is badly affecting the snow cover and the dependent species.

Mountain or High Biome :

Latitudinal Extent: Not specific.
It depends on altitude, slopes of high mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Rockies.

Vegetation: Ranges from deciduous to tundra according to altitude.
Plants are small and perennial.

Animal Life: Animals with special adaptation to snow.

Human Life: In some areas, people grow crops.
Grazing and sheep rearing are primary occupations.
Tourism has developed in such biomes.
Transhumance is practiced.

Current Status: Over tourism has caused overcrowding.
Mountain biomes are threatened by deforestation, wildfires, hunting, poaching and urban sprawl.

Aquatic Biomes :
Besides the terrestrial biomes of the world, we find biomes in the water too. For example, oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.

Aquatic Biomes :

1. Freshwater Biomes
2. Marine Biomes
3. Wetland Biomes
4. Coral Reef Biomes
5. Estuaries

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Geography Notes Chapter 7 Indian Ocean – Relief and Strategic Importance

Indian Ocean – Introduction :

• The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean in the world. Its average depth is 4000m,
• It is the only ocean in the world named after a particular country, i.e., India.
• It occupies about 20 percent of the total oceanic area.
• The Indian Ocean spreads between Africa in the west, Asia in the north and east, Australia in the east and Southern Ocean in the south.
• It is blocked northwards, resulting in development of monsoon climate of the Indian sub-continent.

Bottom Relief of the Indian Ocean :

1. Continental Shelf
2. Mid-Oceanic Ridges
3. Ocean Basins
4. Oceanic Deeps
5. Islands

Continental Shelf:

• Continental Shelf is a portion of continents, submerged under oceanic water.
• It is normally occupied by gulfs, seas, bays, straits.
• A continental shelf may be extensive, narrow, wide.
• These shelfs are covered with deposits brought by agents of erosion.
• Some of the sedimentary deposits, remain deposited for a long time, which then forms sedimentary rocks.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges :

• They are submerged mountain ranges that separate deep portions of the sea (ocean) floor.
• The Indian Ocean consists of a Mid Oceanic ridge called as a Mid Indian Oceanic ridge.
• It originates from Gulf of Eden near the Peninsula of Somalia.
• It extends toward the south and at east side of Madagascar.
• This ridge gets divided into two branches :
• The branch diverts towards southwest and extends up to Prince Edward Island. It is known as  Southwest Indian Ocean ridge.
• The branch extends southeast up to Amsterdam and St. Paul Island.
• Mid Indian Oceanic ridge has many parallel ridges.
• This ridge does not flow continuously due to fracture zones such as Owen fracture zone, Amsterdam fracture zone, etc.
• Apart from Mid-Oceanic Ridges there is Kerguelen Plateau, in south side of Madagascar is Madagascar Plateau and in south side of Africa is Agulhas Plateau.

Indian Ocean Basins :

1. Oman
2. Somali
3. Mascarene
4. West Australian
5. Ganga
6. Arabian
7. Mauritius
8. Aguihas-Natal
9. Mid-Indian

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:
They are the deepest portions in the oceans.

Ocean Deeps and Trenches:

1. Jeva or Sunda Trench
   (7,450 m deep)
2. Ob Trench
   (6,875 m deep)

Islands:
land mass surrounded by ocean on all sides.

Distribution of temperature in the Indian Ocean :

• The study of temperature influences the biotic component in the oceans.
• Temperature is also largely responsible for the movement in the oceanic water.

Distribution of salinity in the Indian Ocean :

• Salinity influences the density of the ocean water.
• It cause the movements in the ocean water.

Temperature : of Indian Ocean water depends on the seasons

Pre-Monsoon Season:

• summer solstice
• Temperature increases especially in the southern portion closer to the equator.

South-We st Monsoon Season

• Temperature is lowered in the Arabian Sea because of monsoonal winds.

North-East

• Monsoon Season Winter solstice
• Temperature reduced
• Northern parts of Bay of Bengal record temperature of about 24°C.

Salinity: Salinity is the measure of amount of salts in the sea water. It is expressed as parts per thousand (%o). Average salinity of sea-water is 35%o.

• The salinity is generally high around the Somali Peninsula and closer to the Saudi Arabian Coast due to high temperature and low rainfall; there are very few rivers entering into the sea in this area.
• In the Bay of Bengal, huge discharges from the Ganga system and also from the Peninsular rivers leads to lowering of salinity in this area.
• Salinity is less in the rainy season.

Ocean Currents in the Indian Ocean :

• They are affected by Monsoon Wind System, especially in the northern Indian Ocean.
• They mix waters, transfer heat from one part of the ocean to the other.
• Indian ocean currents are affected by:
  • Shape of its coastline
  • Extent of coastline
  • Peculiar arrangement of the wind system in the region.

Indian Ocean Currents:

1. South Equatorial Current
2. The West Wind Drift

1. The West Wind Drift

• flows east to west, influenced by easterlies.
• circulation completed by Mozambique-Agulhas currents

2. South Equatorial Current:

• flows east to west, to east, influenced by westerlies
• circulation completed by West Australian Current.

→ In the northern portion of the Indian Ocean, seasonal monsoonal winds drive the currents.

→ These currents mostly follow along the coast lines.

→ During summer they follow in the clockwise direction and during the winter they flow in anticlockwise direction.

Importance of the Indian Ocean :

• The Indian Ocean region connects three continents namely Asia, Africa and Australia.
• It supports some of Asia’s biggest economies.
• It contains three busiest straits — Hormuz, Malacca and Bab-el-Mandeb.
• Majority of crude oil exported by Gulf countries passes through this route via Strait of Hormuz.
• The economy of island countries like Maldives and Seychelles located in the Indian Ocean depends upon the marine ecosystem and marine tourism in the Indian Ocean.
• Indian Ocean region has become important for countries that have military and naval bases, leading to tension in the region.
• Abyssal plains of the Indian Ocean are a source of nickel, copper, manganese, and cobalt.

Importance of the Indian Ocean for India :

• The Indian Ocean provides sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and America.
• It carries heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfield of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia.
• Large reserves of hydrocarbons tapped in the offshore areas.
• Beach sands, rich in heavy minerals and offshore deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India.
• The increasing trade relations with the countries of the East, India has higher stakes in the region in the future.
• The increasing trade has brought about threats of piracy, armed robbery, and maritime terrorism.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 7 Nervous System

Nervous system:

• Nervous system is the complex network of neurons that carry signals from brain to body and body to brain.
• Our nervous system consists of two major parts, viz, Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• CNS consists of brain and spinal cord.
• PNS consists of somatic and autonomic nervous system.
• Somatic nervous system is further divided into sensory and motor system.
• Autonomic nervous system is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
• Neurons are the building blocks of nervous system.
• A neuron consists of dendrites, axon, cell body and terminal button or telodendria.
• Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers.
• Some important neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate and GABA (Gama Amino Butyric Acid).

Brain:

• The study of Psychology can’t be complete without studying the brain.
• Our brain helps to adapt to the environment and plays a crucial role in every aspect of life.
• The brain consists of three major parts, viz, hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.
• Hindbrain consists of cerebellum, brain stem and reticular activation system.
• Midbrain consists of two parts, viz, superior and inferior colliculus,
• Forebrain consists of cerebrum. The outside cover of cerebrum is called as cerebral cortex.
• The surface of cerebral cortex is divided into two halves: right and left hemisphere.
• Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, viz, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.
• The limbic system is also an important part of the brain.
• The limbic system consists of hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus.
• The various pillars of better brain functioning are physical and mental exercise, nutrition, tackling medical problems, sleep and relaxation, mental fitness as well as social interaction.

Spinal cord:

• The spinal cord extends from neck to waist.
• Its main function is to send information from brain to body and from to body to brain.
• It controls reflex actions like salivation, sneezing, knee jerk, blinking of eyes.
• It is connected to the periphery through 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is joined to spinal cord through two routes: dorsal and ventral route.

Glands:

• Glands are specialised groups of cells or organs that secrete chemical substances.
• There are many glands. All glands fall into two categories, viz, endocrine and exocrine.
• Exocrine glands are also called as duct glands. e.g. sweat gland, tear gland etc.
• Endocrine glands are called as ductless glands. e.g. pituitary gland, thyroid gland etc.
• Endocrine glands secrete vital chemical substances called hormones.
• Hormones have strong impact on human behaviour.
• Over (hyper) or under (hypo) secretion of hormones may lead to a variety of problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Stress

Being well adjusted: A dynamic balance:

• Richard Lazarus: Stress ¡s a feeling experienced when an individual feels that the demands exceed the personal and social resources an individual is able to mobilize.
• Indian philosophy: Our desires and involvement in the material world are the cause of our stress which leads to Kiesha. There are five types of Kleshas.
• All of us experience stress at different points and everyone deals with it ¡n their own way.
• Moderate stress helps one to achieve optimum performance.

Types of stress and Gas:

• Hypo stress: It is caused when one has nothing to do at all. Due to hypo stress, an individual feels bored, demotivated, unenthusiastic, and restless.
• Hyper stress: It is caused due to extremely pressurizing conditions. Due to hyper stress, a person may panic and engage in exaggerated reactions, leading to frustration and agitation.
• Eustress: It is a positive form of stress. Eustress has a beneficial effect on health, motivation, performance and emotional well-being.
• Distress: It is a negative type of stress and is experienced when the normal routine of an individual is constantly altered and adjusted. Two types of distress are: Acute and Chronic distress.
• Acute distress is an intense, short-term negative stress while chronic distress is a long-lasting, recurrent negative distress.
• Hans Selye introduced the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model in 1936.
• GAS showed the effects of stress on the human body.
• GAS model consists of three stages: Alarm stage, Resistance stage, and Exhaustion stage.

Stressors and conflict of motives:

• Stressors are environmental conditions, external stimuli, or events that cause stress.
• There are two types of stressors, viz, internal stressors and external stressors.
• Interna I stressors are stressors within us.
• External stressors are stressors resulting from the outside environment.
• Conflict of motives refers to the clash between two or more equally strong and incompatible motives occurring at the same time that compels an individual to make a choice.
• The types of conflict are Approach-Approach conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict, and Double Approach-Avoidance conflict.

Coping with stress: strategies:

• Everyone tries to deal with internal and external stressors and resolve conflicts.
• If one does not resolve the conflicts, it leads to stress.
• There are two broad strategies of coping with stress: Problem and emotions-focused coping.
• Problem-focused coping is known as a direct way of reducing stressors or resolving conflict.
• Problem-focused coping involves three strategies: Attack, Compromise, and Withdrawal.
• Emotion-focused coping involves reducing negative emotional responses associated with stress.
• According to Freud’s theory, our personality is controlled by ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Our reaction in a particular situation will depend upon the interaction of ID, Ego, and Superego.
• Defence mechanism is an indirect way to combat stress.
• Some popular defence mechanisms are repression, displacement, projection, sublimation, identification, daydreaming and rationalisation.