Bhagya

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 History Notes Chapter 15 India During Mughal Period

Mughal rule in India:
In the beginning of the 16th century, the political condition in India was somewhat disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi Sultanate broke down completely and many new independent kingdoms emerged in the North, Central and South India. The Bahamani kingdom got divided into five branches. The prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed by the five Islamic ruling houses in the South.

The Indians were not familiar with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of all this, the Mughals established their rule in India. The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could not survive in front of Babur in the battle of Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. Babur established his rule in Delhi.

The Rajput kings came together under the leadership of Mewar King Rana Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the throne. After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended the throne. He proved to be the greatest Mughal Emperor because of his qualities such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness and courage.

Reforms in revenue system:
Akbar made further reforms in the revenue system implemented by Shershah Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the Mughal revenue system. He graded the cultivable land-based on systematic land survey. The land was classified into four types on the basis of annual yield, i.e, fertile (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat) and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land holdings of farmers were registered.

Art, architecture, literature:
Art: The reign of the three emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of peace, order and prosperity. A new era began in the field of art and architecture. The etched designs on the marble walls of mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence of the highly advanced styles of art and architecture. The carved designs on the tombs of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj Mahal are its paramount examples.

During the period of Jahangir, paintings were done based on the court and hunting scenes. The paintings of this period were done in a more realistic style, which is vibrant and attractive.

Architecture: The architectural style during Sultanate period had great implements on strength and simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period of Babur, the Kabulbag Mosque at Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar Pradesh were built in Persian style.

The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings like Jama * Masjid, Buland Darwaza were built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the important forts like Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort, and Attock Fort. The use of Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches were the salient features of the architecture of this period.

The period of Shahjahan was the most glorious period of Mughal architecture. ‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red Fort, ‘Jama Masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra built by him is incomparable and immortal. Later, the Mughal architecture began to decline.

Literature: During the Mughal period excellent literature was created in Persian language. Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish languages. His autobiography known as ‘Baburnama’ is well-known. Another important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza Hyder wrote during the period of Humayun. Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’, ‘Lilavati’, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’, ‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’.

Abul Fazal wrote the famous Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-Akbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan, was a Sanskrit scholar. He translated text of several Upanishada texts in Persian language from Sanskrit. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikhi-Khafikhan’ is well-known.

Trade, industries, social life:
During the Mughal period, the transportation of goods within the empire had become speedy. New highways were built for internal trade. Highways were built from Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat, Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via sea route was mainly carried out from the ports on western coast such as Khambayat, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut.

The Indian merchants traded with merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia and some countries of European continent. Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar, ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many such items were exported to foreign countries from India. The goods imported to India included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc.

During the Mughal period, most of the population stayed in villages. Every village was self-sufficient. The law and order was managed and the daily needs were met at the village level. During this period, there were no major changes in the social organisation which was based on caste system.

Mughal Empire and Deccan:
During the rule of Babur and Humayun boundaries of the Mughal empire had no extended beyond North India. The main ruling powers to the South of river Narmada were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and Qutubshahi of Golconda.

In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah, successfully resisted the attack with courage and intelligent strategies.
During the period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom declined. Later, Aurangzeb was successful in uprooting them completely.

Glossary:

→ Descendant – Someone related to a person who live at an earlier time.

→ Aesthetics – Concerned with beauty or art.

→ Strategies – Set of plans to achieve something.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Sociology Notes Chapter 6 Social Problems in India

→ A social problem is a condition affecting a significant number of people in ways considered undesirable, about which it is felt that something can be done through collective social action.

→  Individual problem is a problem experienced by an individual and it is the individual who must make an effort to solve one’s problem.

→ A social problem is different than an individual problem.

→ Unemployment is a growing problem in Indian society. According to NSSO, an unemployed person is one who puts in less than 14 hours of paid work in a week.

→ The past decade has witnessed an increasing number of farmers’ suicides. Farmers’ suicides are a serious social problem in India.

→ Domestic violence refers to abuse within the family. Domestic violence cuts across all classes, age categories, sexes and genders.

→ The term ‘addiction’ is usually used to refer to a situation of psychological and/or physical dependence on alcohol, correct to, internet or mobiles.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 5 Healthy Me – Normal Me

Introduction:

• Life’s success depends on mental and emotional well-being.
• Hence, EQ is also as important as IQ.
• Normal behaviour: Well-adjusted individuals
• Abnormal behaviour: Mal-adjusted individuals

Criteria of well-adjusted individuals:

• Realistic perception of self and world: Knowing own strengths and weaknesses and accepting the world as it is.
• Openness to new experiences: Being comfortable towards changes and unknown people.
• High emotional intelligence: Appropriate understanding and management of emotions.
• Healthy relationships: Being able to honour differences, help others and make them feel special.
• High self-esteem: Feeling important, worthy and valuable about oneself.
• It’s rare for a person to possess all the criteria of a well-adjusted individual.
• Also, well-adjusted individuals can face discomfort in certain situations.

Components of emotional intelligence:
Self:

• Self-awareness: Being aware of one’s emotions, desires, motivations and actions.
• Self-regulation: Controlling emotions and restraining inappropriate actions.
• Self-motivation: Pushing oneself towards a goal without any external reward.

Social:

1. Social skills: Ability to comfortably interact with others.
2. Empathy: Ability to put yourself in other’s shoes and understand their pain.

Important aspects of healthy relationships:

1. Being honest
2. Being fair
3. Being respectful
4. Being non-threatening
5. Being a responsible parent
6. Having shared responsibilities
7. Having economic partnership
8. Having trust and support.

The vicious cycle of low self-esteem:

1. Low self-esteem → Negative thoughts →High anxiety → Poor Performance → Failure → Self-blame → Low self-esteem.
2. High self-esteem builds confidence and leads to healthy social interactions and further boosts self-esteem.

Criteria of abnormal Behaviour:

• Deviance: Behaviour going against the laws or set social and statistical standards.
• Personal distress: Feeling very low or depressed on continuous basis.
• Failure to perform functions normally: Day-to-day functioning getting impaired.
• The behaviour can’t be judged on the basis of only one criterion.

Perspectives on abnormal behaviour:

1. Biological: Abnormal behaviour is due to a chemical imbalance or physiological factors.
2. Socio-cultural: Abnormal behaviour is learned within the social context.
3. Behavioural: Abnormal behaviour is due to ineffective learning and conditioning.
4. Evolutionary: Abnormal behaviour is an exaggerated form of adaptive action.
5. Humanistic: Abnormal behaviour arises from blocked personal growth.
6. Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic: Abnormal behaviour is due to unconscious and unresolved conflicts.
7. Cognitive: Abnormal behaviour arises due to false assumptions and faulty thinking.

Two models that explain the causes of abnormal behaviour:
Stress-Diathesis model:

• Disorder = Nature (Biological and genetic factors) + Nurture (Life experiences) of abnormal
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder are more likely behaviour to show abnormal behaviour when exposed to environmental stress.

Biopsychosocial model:

• Abnormal behaviour = Biological factors + Psychological factors + Sociocultural factors
• Those who are genetically predisposed towards a particular disorder develop abnormalities if exposed to a disturbing and hostile environment, If exposed to nurturing and protective environment, there are fewer chances.

Challenges faced by adolescents:

• Lack of self-confidence: Not feeling positive about oneself.
• Sexual orientation: Recognising and understanding their sexual preferences.
• Gender Identity: Recognising and identifying if their gender corresponds with their birth sex.
• Bullying: Outside of their protective homes, chances of being bullied.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 4 Human Development

Introduction:

1. The term ‘Human Development’ means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience.
2. Hereditary factors, as well as physical and social environment, determine development.
3. Development occurs at an appropriate time in physical, cognitive, emotional as well as social aspects.

Characteristics of development:

• Development follows a specific pattern.
• Development takes place in specific direction.
• Development is continuous.
• Development proceeds from general to specific.
• There are individual differences in development.
• The rate of development is different for different body parts.
• Development leads to integration.
• Certain behavioural problems are normal for a particular stage.
• Development is predictable.
• The child develops as a unified whole.

Growth maturation and development:

• Growth refers to physical changes as the age advances.
• Maturation refers to a natural unfolding of the genetic potential at the appropriate time,
• Development is qualitative change and it includes physical as well as mental changes.
• The concepts of growth, maturation and development are parallel, i.e. an individual grows, matures and develops simultaneously.

Developmental Stages:

1. Human life proceeds in stages.
2. Broadly, human development can be classified into prenatal and postnatal stages.
3. A period between conception till birth is called prenatal period while period after birth till death is called postnatal period.
4. The stages in prenatal period are germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage while post-natal period consists of neonatal stage, early childhood, late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, late adulthood and old age.
5. Each stage is associated with a different set of characteristics and problems.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 3 Self

Introduction:

• All of us are part of thiš world. We play many roles in our lives.
• Self-concept is defined as the totality of perceptions each person has of themselves.
• According to Symonds, self-concept is the way an individual reacts to himself.
• Our self-concept continues to change throughout our life span.

Dimensions of self-concept:

• Rentsch and Heffener are conducted research on the dimensions of self-concept.
• Their research showed that the overall organization of self-concept is common for all.
• They found eight categories by which participants defined themselves.

Self and life cycle:

• On average, till the age of six months, the child Is unaware of himself.
• As the child grows, he realizes that he is different from the rést of the world.
• Generally, face recognition with a mirror occurs at the average age of one and half years.
• By the age of two, the child becomes aware of general expectations.
• By the age of three, children start recognizing themselves and others as boys or girls.
• When schooling starts, a child begins to compare himself with others.
• The final unfolding of self-concept during adolescence involves perspective-taking.

Gender Identity and gender role:

1. Gender role and gender identity are important aspects of self-concept.
2. Gender identity is the perception of oneself as male or female.
3. Gender role is psycho-social in nature and is determined through social interactions.
4. Gender identity is a biological aspect while gender role is an acquired attribute of self-concept.

Aspects of self:

• Four major aspects of self are self-awareness, self-image, self-efficacy and self-esteem.
• Self-awareness is the quality or trait that involves conscious awareness of one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviours and traits.
• Self-image is a personal view or mental picture that we have of ourselves. Body image is also a part of self-image.
• Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his ability to accomplish some specific goal or a task.
• Self-esteem is our overall evaluation of our worth as a person based on all positive and negative self-perceptions.

Self-regulatIon:

1. Self-regulation is being able to control our own thoughts, feelings, and actions.
2. When one engages in self-regulation, he avoids impulsive reactions.
3. Self-regulation also involves focusing on certain parts of life.
4. Higgins showed that people either have promotion or prevention regulatory focus.
5. Self-regulation has crucial implications in our life.

Carl Rogers’ theory of self:

• According to Carl Rogers, every individual has a tendency to actualize himself.
• People who achieve self-actualization are well-balanced, well-adjusted, and interesting.
• Two important concepts related to Roger’s theory are the real self and ideal self.
• The real self is what we actually are while ¡deal self is what we want to be.
• High congruence between the real self and ideal self leads to a healthy productive life.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Psychology Notes Chapter 2 Branches of Psychology

Introduction:

• Psychology is an important science in modern times.
• The scope of Psychology is getting wider with the emergence of new branches.
• Today, there are more than 50 branches of Psychology that help to study human behaviour from different angles.

Branches of psychology:

• Two broad areas of Psychology are Theoretical branches and Applied branches.
• In theoretical branches, psychologists concentrate on carrying out research and forming theories while applied branches help individuals to use the knowledge gained from research to solve their real-life problems.
• The extremely vast scope of psychology has led to development of many subfields.

Theoretical Branches:

• Developmental Psychology studies changes in behaviour from conception to death.
• Child Psychology studies biological, psychological and emotional changes in childhood.
• Social Psychology studies how a person influences people and gets influenced by them.
• Cognitive Psychology concentrates on higher mental processes like thinking and reasoning.
• Experimental Psychology attempts to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour.
• Abnormal Psychology studies unusual patterns of behaviour, emotions and thinking.

Applied Branches:

• Educational Psychology studies all factors related to education.
• Clinical Psychology studies diagnoses and treats emotional and behavioural problems.
• Counseling Psychology deals with milder behavioural problems.
• Criminal Psychology deals with motives behind criminal behaviour.
• Sports Psychology helps sportspersons to maintain their motivation and stamina.
• Industrial Psychology is concerned with the behaviour of people working in an organisation.

Careers in psychology:

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1 students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 History Notes Chapter 11 India Transformed Part 1

→ After independence, India has made advancements in various fields, especially after 1990. India emerges as a strong country at international forum. In this chapter, we are going to study the advancement made by India in different fields.

Globalisation:

→ India adopted the policy of liberalisation in 1990, since then many changes took place in trade and commerce.

→ Many countries with a view to protect their home market imposed various duties on imported goods so to discuss this problem a meeting was called in Cuba which was attended by 56 nations.

→ The first multinational trade agreement was signed by 23 nations at Geneva known as GATT.

World Trade Organisation (WTO):

1. Nearly 123 nations came together and found an organisation on 1st January 1995 with an objective of opening the world for free trade known as WTO.
2. The Director-General of WTO, Arthur Dunkel prepared a draft known as ‘Dunkel Draft’ which emphasises on trade, free from governmental custom duty and other restrictions. This policy is known as liberalisation.
3. WTO published a report on 2006 which mentioned India’s increasing economic growth.

Transformation in various field:
Transformation of a nation can be discerned through certain indicators. Transformation has taken place in various fields.

Rural Development Plans:

→ Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana: This plan was started on 2nd October 1993 for creating opportunities for job and private enterprise.

→ Rojgar Hami Yojana: Started on 2nd October 1993 to assure daily wages to the unemployed agricultural labourers.

→  In 2001, this plan was merged in Gramin Rojgar Yojana.

→  To provide support to farmers in difficult times ‘Kisan Credit Card’ plan was started.

→  Suvarnajayanti Gramin Swayam Rojgar Yojana: This plan was launched in 1999 by merging various plans together.

→ Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana: This plan was implemented in 1999 to provide employment to the unemployed men and women.

→  Later it was merged into ‘Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana’.

→ Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana: Started by merging together Rojgar Aashwasan Yojana and Jawahar Gram-Samruddhi Yojana for creating employment opportunities in rural areas.

→  This plan was merged in Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana.

→ Rashtriya Gramin Rojgar Hami Yojana: Under this scheme each family in rural areas was given 100 day’s work.

→  Agriculture and Livestock: Agriculture and agro related sector were given importance.

→ Soil Health Card Scheme aims at increasing soil fertility.

→  Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchan Yojana given importance to irrigation.

→ Krishi Vikas Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Vima Yojana implemented for economic welfare of farmers.

→  In 2007, national policy for farmers was adopted.

→ Pradhan Mantri Peek Vima Yojana was introduced if crop failure was there.

→ Agricultural exhibitions are organised through Indian Council for Agricultural Research.

→ Goat keeping or sheli plan is encouraged.

→ ‘National Livestock Mission’ was established in 2014.

→ Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Started in 2000 with a purpose of building roads and linking the villages.

Urban Development Plans:

→ Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (Jnnurm): Started in 2005 with aim of massive modernisation of cities through road building, public transport, wastewater disposal and other management schemes.

→ Golden Quadrilateral (Suvarna Chatushkon Yojana): Started in 1998 with an aim of creating national highway network to join the four megacities – Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkatta.

→ Metro Railway: Flagged off in 2002 in Delhi.

Means of Communication:

Postal department:

→ Indian Postal Department was established in 1766 by British.

→ The postal department has introduced various schemes such as Postal Saving Account, Term Deposit, Public Provident Fund, Kisan Vikas Patra, Sukanya Samruddhi Yojana.

→ Post Offices were brought under core banking solutions, ATMs were installed and also provided services to non-resident Indians.

→ Speed post: changed the very nature of Indian postal service.

Economic issues:

→ Ministry of Disinvestment: It was established by Government of India to take care of its disinvestment policy. Focuses on reducing disinvestment in sectors like mining, petroleum, refineries etc.

→ The policy of privatisation, Liberalisation and Globalisation are popularly known as KHAUJA boosted the confidence of Indian companies.

→ It was renamed as Department of Investment in 2016.

→ BRICS: Established in 2006 with an aim of enhancing the trade among the participant countries like Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.

Science and Technology.

• A super-computer named Param-8000 was created.
• In 1998, an advanced version of Param-8000 was created and named as Param-10000.
• In 2003, Parampadma Super Computer was dedicated to nation.
• In 2004, Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) was the biggest firm in Asia providing software services.
• In 2000, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was established to provide services like cellular phones, internet and broadband.

Space research:

1. In 2007, India launched Italian satellite and entered in a new field of space research.
2. In 2008, India launched Chandrayaan-1, the first lunar probe.
3. After that India launched Chandrayaan-2 and Mangalyaan.

Defence Affairs.

→ In 1999, Kargil war was fought between India and Pakistan when Pakistan intruded Kashmir. It is also referred to as ‘Operation Vijay’.

→ In 2009, India launched Strategic Strike Nuclear Submarine of Arihant class.

→ The Government of India emphasised on indigenous production by using indigenous technology (Make in India).

Youth related policies.

• In 1972, a number of centres of‘Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan’ were established.
• National Youth Empowerment Programme put a thrust on topics like literacy, education health and hygiene, family welfare etc.
• 12th January the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekanand is observed as ‘National Youth Day.
• Youth Hostels Association of India has established youth hostels in various parts of country.

Right to Information Act 2005.

1. This kind of act was first applied in Sweden in 1776.
2. In 1982, L.K. Kulwant first initiated the process by applying to know the Jaipur Municipal Corporation’s work for cleaning the city.
3. Aruna Rao started the movement ‘Majdoor Kisan Shakti Sanghatan’ in 1990.
4. The act was implemented in Maharashtra after a long struggle of Anna Hazare.

Reorganisation of States:
New states were formed in India

→  Chhattisgarh: Fazal Ali Commission rejected the demand. Later by the initiative of, Government of India the state of Chhattisgarh was created on 1st November 2000.

→  Uttarakhand: The demand of separate state of the people of Garhwal and Kumaon was supported by Indian National Congress. Uttarakhand Parvatiya Rajya Parishad was established for this purpose. Finally, in 2000 the state of Uttaranchal was created, which renamed as Uttarakhand.

→ Jharkhand: In 1947, All India Jharkhand Party was established for a demand of separate Jharkhand. The Bihar legislative assembly passed the bill in 2000 and the state of Jharkhand came into existence on 15th November 2000.

→  Telangana: Telangana Rashtriya Samiti started the movement for the creation of a separate Telangana. In 2014 this proposal was approved in the Parliament and the state of Telangana came into existence on 2nd June 2014.

→  Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh: Article 370 gave a special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

→  Recently in August 2019, Government of India revoked Article 370 and from 31st October the state of Jammu and Kashmir was reconstructed as two separate Union territories of Jammu-Kashmir and Ladakh.

Glossary:

→ Liberalisation – The removal or loosening of restriction on something, typically an economic or political system

→ Globalisation – Is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies and government worldwide

→ Modernisation – The process of adapting something to modern needs or habits

→ Reorganisation – The action or process of changing the way in which something is organised.

→ Pisciculture — The controlled breeding and rearing of fish

→ Census – An official count or survey, especially of a population

→ Bureaucrats – Is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution of government

→ Oceanography – The branch of science which deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of the sea

→ Terrorism – The unlawful use of violence and intimidation especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims

→ Entrepreneur – A person who sets up a business, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit.

→ Co-operative – Involving mutual assistance in working towards a common goal Transformation A marked change in form, nature, or appearance.

By going through these Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes  Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders Cognitive Processes students can recall all the concepts quickly.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Psychology Notes Chapter 6 Psychological Disorders

Mental Health Continuum Model:
The major criteria of abnormality are deviance, personal distress and impaired functioning. Illness and absence of illness are not distinct categories but are on opposite poles of the continuum sequence as explained below.

Stage 1 – The person is physically and psychologically healthy. He/She is motivated and emotionally stable.

Stage 2 – The person may get affected by life stressors, feel anxious, lack energy, etc., for e.g., most students are tense before the exams. It is possible to push oneself back towards positive health by adopting a healthy lifestyle.

Stage 3 – The person shows signs of psychological damage and may experience negative feelings like sadness, lack of motivation, fear and may even indulge in addictive behaviour. However, even this stage is not irreversible.

Stage 4 – The person exhibits extreme distress, impairment in mental, emotional and social functioning. He/She needs professional treatment.

Criteria For Psychological Disorders:
According to DSM-5, there are five criteria for psychological disorders.

• Clinically significant syndrome – In psychological disorders, there should be a cluster of symptoms together i.e., a syndrome.
• Distress and Impairment – There should be distress, i.e., psychological pain due to negative feelings and stress, as well as impairment, i.e., inability to perform appropriate roles in personal and social situations.
• Dysfunction – If the symptoms lead to developmental or psychological dysfunctions, it signifies mental disorders.
• Responses to stressors that are normally accepted responses e.g., sadness experienced at the loss of a loved one or culturally sanctioned responses are not considered as signs of mental disorders.
• Behaviour which is only deviant but does not produce any disability or distress or dysfunction does not become a sign of mental disorder.

Mental Wellness:
According to the WHO, mental wellness refers to “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope up with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.”

The important aspects of mental wellness are –

• Emotional aspect – There is a sense of well-being and contentment
• Psychological aspect – There is high self-esteem and tendency of self-actualization.
• Life philosophy – There are clear goals and objectives in life.

The Illness Wellness Continuum Model by John Travis:

Quadrant 1 – The person is in an ideal state of functioning.
Quadrant 2 – The person has no mental illness but experiences subjective feeling of unhappiness.
The person suffers from mental illness yet he/she experiences a high sense of subjective well-being.
This is the lowest level of functioning. The person has mental illness and also experiences distress.

Mental Disorders – Classification:
There are two major systems to classify psychological disorders.

1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) – DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) in 2013. It contains 22 broad categories of mental disorders with subcategories.
2. International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) – ICD-11
   was created by the WHO in 2019, according to which there are 19 broad categories of mental disorders.

Major Psychological Disorders:
Anxiety Disorders:
The word ‘anxiety’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Anxietas’ which means ‘uneasy or troubled mind’. Anxiety refers to a condition in which the person feels worried and uneasy for a long time for no obvious reasons.
The main anxiety disorders are:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:
The person frequently experiences anxiety more intensely so that it starts interfering with the ability to perform daily tasks. Symptoms include irritability, headaches, insomnia, dizziness, breathlessness, etc.

Phobic disorders:
The word ‘phobia’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Phobos which was used to refer to the God of Fear. A phobia is an intense, persistent but irrational and disproportionate fear of a specific object or situation. DSM classifies phobias as simple phobias, e.g., Acrophobia, Claustrophobia etc., and social phobias, e.g., fear of speaking or eating in public.

Depressive Disorders:
Depression is an emotional state typically marked by sadness and guilt, feelings of anxiety and hopelessness. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, interest and sleep, fatigue, sexual dysfunction and suicidal thoughts.

Bipolar Disorders:
Bipolar disorder is also known as Manic Depressive disorder. The person experiences alternate phases of two states viz. mania, i.e., extreme excitement and elation and depression, i.e., extreme irritability, hopelessness and sadness. Main causative factor are genetic factors and imbalance in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, epinephrine, etc.

Trauma And Stress-Related Disorders:
Stress is inevitable in life. Daily hassles, relationship issues, frustration, chronic illness, etc., lead to stress. If stress is in moderate intensity, it acts as a motivation. However, intense and prolonged stress impairs normal functioning of the individual and may lead to stress disorders.

The two types of stress disorders are –
Acute Stress Disorder (ASD):
If a person (aged 6 years and above) has experienced extremely stressful situations like death of a loved one, serious disease or injury, sexual abuse, natural disasters, etc., then he/she may experience ASD.

The symptoms of ASD include –

• emotional numbness and instability
• nightmares and sleep distturbances
• insomnia, lack of concentration, irritability and guilt feelings
• depression

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
If symptoms of ASD continue for more than one month with the same intensity, the person is diagnosed with PTSD.

A person who has suffered trauma generally goes through three stages viz.-

• Shock stage – the individual is in shock, i.e., extremely disturbed.
• Suggestible stage – he/she may seek guidance from others and may either accept these suggestions unquestioningly or may get extra sensitive.
• Recovery stage – the person shows signs of recovery.
  However, some persons still show signs of mental illness i.e., PTSD.

The symptoms of PTSD include –

• nightmares, flashbacks, severe anxiety
• hypervigilance and avoidance of situations that bring back the trauma
• irritability, social isolation
• survivor’s guilt.

Substance-Related And Addictive Disorders:
Addictive disorders refer to the physical and psychological inability to stop consuming some substance or indulging in some activity although it is harmful. This includes dependence on drugs, nicotine, alcohol, etc., or activities like gambling, eating, gaming, etc. Drug addiction refers to an inability to control the use of alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, marijuana, medications, etc.

Symptoms of addiction are –

• Excessive consumption of drugs or alcohol and inability to reduce the dosage.
• In case the person tries to stop the drug use, then withdrawal symptoms occur which include sweating, tremors, muscle pain, goosebumps, etc.
• Physical and psychological dependence may lead to drug abuse or overdose of the addictive substance and even cause the death of the person.
• The person’s physical, emotional, social and financial well-being breakdown. Alcoholics
  Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) are organizations that help addicts to overcome dependence.

Schizophrenia:
The term ‘Schizophrenia’ is derived from Greek words Schizein (to split) and phren (mind). It was coined in 1911 by a Swiss psychologist, Paul Eugene Bleuler. Thus, the literal meaning of the word ‘schizophrenia’ is split mind. It is a psychotic disorder.

According to DSM-5 the two types of symptoms for schizophrenia are:

• Positive symptoms,
• Negative symptoms.

Positive symptoms are an excess addition to normal thoughts or behaviour of the period. Such symptoms are –

• hallucinations – mainly auditory and visual hallucination
• delusions – mainly of grandeur, reference and persecution
• disorganized thought and speech
• bizarre body movements and disorganized behaviour
• incongruent affect.

Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of thought processes. They lead to low level of functioning and may not improve much even with treatment.

This includes –

• emotional blunting – diminished emotional expression
• anhedonia – inability to experience deep positive emotions
• alogia – diminished speed
• asociality – lack of desire to form relationships
• avolition – lack of motivation
• apathy.

Sometimes, a schizophrenic exhibits positive as well as negative symptoms.

Treating Psychological Disorders:
Signs that help to identify individuals who require expert (professional) help in mental health are called ‘red flags’. Symptoms, if present, in any person should satisfy three requirements

1. it should be present for a considerably long period of time
2. symptom has become more severe than before
3. it has created problems in the person’s life.

The signals indicating a need for professional help are:

• inability to concentrate or to sleep well.
• severe confusion and memory loss.
• intense and uncontrollable negative feelings.
• self-neglect or even self-harm.
• loss of interest in friends/ family/ activities.
• odd statements or strange use of words.

Treatment strategies range form pharmacotherapy (administering drugs) to psychotherapy such as Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy, Interpersonal Therapy, Group/Family Therapy, etc. Mental heath professionals are qualified to decide the plan of treatment.

Glossary:

→ Anxiety – A state in which the feelings of an individual experience of uneasiness and worry and tends to anticipate that there will be danger or failure in the future.

→ Delusion – A false belief that is strongly held by an individual even in the presence of contradictory evidence

→ Depression – A state of experiencing sadness, pessimism, loss of interest in activities that previously were enjoyable along with physical, cognitive and behavioural changes.

→ Distress – A negative emotional state indicating worry.

→ DSM-5 – The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2013: it is a widely used manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Dysfunction – Any impairment or disturbance leading to abnormality in behaviours or functioning.

→ Hallucination – It is a false visual/auditory perception that occurs in the absence of appropriate stimuli.

→ ICD- 11 – The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems issued by the World Health Organisation (WHO) consisting of a manual on the definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Mental Health – It is a state of mind that is characterised by emotional well being, good adjustment and ability to cope with the demands and stresses of daily living.

→ Stigma – A negative social attitude which is associated with individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder and often leads to social disapproval, discrimination and exclusion of that individual in society.

→ Alcoholics Anonymous – It is an international, nonprofessional, self-supporting, mutual aid fellowship started by Bill Wilson and Bob Smith in 1935 in the USA. Its stated purpose is to enable its members to stop drinking and stay sober. It has a 12 step programme to help stop alcohol abuse and recover from alcoholism.